IGCSE geo & history trs Botswana

IGCSE geo & history trs Botswana This group is for Botswana geo and history teachers. It's aim is to help each other with resources or anything related to these 2 subjects.

Even if there is a teaching vac available one can use this platform.šŸ™šŸ™

30/01/2025

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Maps
Maps (Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Geography): Revision Note

Jenna Quinn
Bridgette Barrett
Written by: Bridgette Barrett

Reviewed by: Jenna Quinn

Updated on 20 January 2025

Maps
Questions in the exam will be based on topographical maps

The maps can be from anywhere in the world

Maps will have a key, scale, northings and eastings

These all need to be used to answer the questions

Grid references
4-figure are used to locate specific grid squares within the map

The first two figures are the eastings, which indicate how far east or west a grid is across the map

The second two figures are the northings, which indicate how far north or south a grid is on the map

6-figure grid references are used to locate exact points within grid squares

The first three figures are the eastings

The second three figures are the northings

To find a 4 and 6 figure grid reference

First, find the four-figure grid reference by giving the number from the bottom of the map first and then the number from the side of the map.

30/01/2025

Topographic map notes
Maps in exams will be scaled at either:

1:25,000 (1 cm = 250 m in real life)

1:50,000 (1 cm = 500 m in real life)

Distance measurement methods:

For straight or nearly straight distances:

Use a ruler

Use the edge of a straight piece of paper

Using map scale:

Mark distances on a piece of paper using the scale at the map's bottom

Lay the marked paper from first to second point to calculate distance

25/09/2024

Northeast Greenland is home to the 79Ā° N Glacierā€”the country's largest floating glacier tongue, but also one seriously threatened by global warming. Warm water from the Atlantic is melting it from below. However, experts from the Alfred Wegener Institute have now determined that the temperature o...

25/09/2024

Indian Crustal Front beneath Tibet Inferred from Seismic Anisotropy

As the collision between India and Eurasia continues to build the Himalayan range and give rise to the Tibetan Plateau, a controversial question at hand is whether the Indian slab is currently subducting or underthrusting.

In a new paper, a team of scientists from Zhejiang University present new constraints on the nature of the seismic anisotropy within the crust of the eastern Lhasa terrane and adjacent areas. Results highlight systematic changes in preferred orientation of deep-crust anisotropic minerals along the perpendicular direction of the Himalayan arc, with a sharp, northward transition from convergence-parallel to orogen-parallel directions occurring about 450 to 500 kilometers north of the Main Frontal thrust. That transition provides an estimate of the northern edge of the Indian lower crust, and indicates underthrusting of the Indian plate beneath Tibet.

https://doi.org/10.1785/0220240103

13/09/2024

Geographical equipment
A stopwatch is used to record time, eg. in traffic counts or in measuring velocity, in which it is used in conjunction with other equipment.

Zeit, Stoppuhr, Uhr, Stunden, Minuten, Sekunde, Hand
Stopwatch

A compass is used to measure direction eg. of a course of a river or to see where the wind is coming from.

A tape measure is used to measure medium distances (between several metres to 30/50 metres). [the yellow thing used for measuring the distance in long jump]

A metre rule is used for measuring short distances eg. the depth of a river.

Callipers, by Joaquim Alves Gaspar, CC BY 2.5

Calipers are used to measure the width, length or height of small objects.

A pebbleometer is used to measure the angularity (roundness) of river materials.

Ranging rods are used to measure the depth of a river, or the angle of a slope with a clinometer. A clinometer is used to measure the angle of elevation (slope) by placing at eye level at a ranging rod (that stands vertically in the ground).The clinometer is directed to the other ranging rod at eyelevel, and the angle is read off.

4971827353_cf1033b8d5_o(1)
Vegetation sampling using a quadrat, By Sagt (Flickr), CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0

Flowmeters are used for measuring the velocity of water eg. in rivers. Flow meters have a small propeller that is placed under the surface of the water. Movement of the propeller created a digital reading that notes the speed of the water.

A quadrat is a square divided into many smaller squares. A quadrat is used for measuring vegetation cover or selecting samples along a river or beach.

Data collection
Often you will be asked to describe what methods have been used to collect certain data. In that case specify the equipment used, how measurements have been taken and how they have been recorded.

Primary vs. secondary data

When collecting data, we can distinguish between primary and secondary data.

Primary data is data that has been collected personally (by you or your tea

13/09/2024

Traffic count: Traffic counts can be performed to gain information on use of roads and means of travel, aiding urban planning.

Find a suitable location or suitable transect.
Use a tally chart to record different modes of transport
Identifying land use and function: Land use may be surveyed to establish boundaries of the CBD and identify management strategies to develop certain areas.

Use a map of the city to select an appropriate transect for data collection.
Classify different types of land use eg. industrial, residential, commercial
Decide on a suitable sampling technique and record the data on the map.
Weather

From what Iā€™ve seen looking at the past papers, most questions ask how weather instruments work or where they need to be sited.Also, you may be asked to interpret data (which is a major component of this paper).

Please refer to the notes on Weather, Climate and Ecosystems for how to use the weather instruments and Paper 2 for data representation.

Environmental surveys

Environmental surveys may be used to track pollution at a variety of sites. A scoring system would be devised to rate the intensity and impact of litter, noise and traffic on the surrounding area. For example, a decibel meter may be used to measure the noise level. Also, secondary data may be used, including researching the results of traffic counts.

13/09/2024

Discharge (mĀ³/s): cross-sectional area (mĀ²) x velocity (m/s) Discharge normally increases downstream, as do width, depth and velocity.

A hydrograph can be used to map the discharge of a river against time at a specific point along the river. In a hydrograph. The highest point on a hydrograph gives us the peak discharge, or the highest rate of discharge. The time interval from the start of rainfall to peak discharge is known as time to peak.

When discharge of a river increases substantially over a long time, for example due to prolonged rainfall, this is shown as an upward curve on the hydrograph. This curve is known as concentration curve or rising limb.

Channel efficiency (measured by hydraulic radius): cross-sectional area/ wetted perimeter. The higher the hydraulic radius, the more efficiently the river transports its load

Gradient (slope): using ranging rods positioned equidistantly upstream and downstream of the cross- section sites and clinometer to measure slope angle.

Settlement surveys

city, traffic, people
Traffic

Traffic count: Traffic counts can be performed to gain information on use of roads and means of travel, aiding urban planning.

Find a suitable location or suitable transect.
Use a tally chart to record different modes of transport
Identifying land use and function: Land use may be surveyed to establish boundaries of the CBD and identify management strategies to develop certain areas.

Use a map of the city to select an appropriate transect for data collection.
Classify different types of land use eg. industrial, residential, commercial
Decide on a suitable sampling technique and record the data on the map.
Weather

From what Iā€™ve seen looking at the past papers, most questions ask how weather instruments work or where they need to be sited.Also, you may be asked to interpret data (which is a major component of this paper).

Please refer to the notes on Weather, Climate and Ecosystems for how to use the weather instruments and Paper 2 for

13/09/2024

Velocity: River velocity (rate of water movement varies across a stream): measured using a flow meter. A single measurement at 60% of the depth of the stream should be taken to supply a reliable average. The fastest part in the river channel is known as the Thalweg.

Dumas_Neyrpic_Current_Meter(1)
Flow meter, by Wtshymanski, CC BY-SA 3.0

Discharge (mĀ³/s): cross-sectional area (mĀ²) x velocity (m/s) Discharge normally increases downstream, as do width

13/09/2024

Longshore drift may be measured to examine the transport of coastal material and predict the supply of sediments in future.

The ā€œfloatā€ method may be used to measure longshore drift.

A tape measure is laid out close to the water to mark start and finish points of the investigation (an appropriate distance should be selected beforehand)
A float is placed in the water and the start mark.
Direction and time of movement of the float is observed and recorded along the preset distance.
More detail on these fieldwork techniques can be found at the Royal Geographical Society.

Measuring river variables

Width and depth: Channel width can be measured by holding a tape measure across the channel from bank to bank. The wetted width is the channel width at water level, while bankful width refers to the distance from bank to bank. Channel depth is measured by using a ranging rod and measuring the depth of the river from water surface to bed on multiple locations across the channel and calculating the average.

The wetted perimeter is the length of the banks and bed that is in contact with the water. It is measured by recording the average depth and the wetted width.

Velocity: River velocity (rate of water movement varies across a stream): measured using a flow meter. A single measurement at 60% of the depth of the stream should be taken to supply a reliable average. The fastest part in the river channel is known as the Thalweg.

Dumas_Neyrpic_Current_Meter(1)

13/09/2024

Beach profile is measured to survey the morphology (structure/elevation) of a beach and compare that to other beaches or coastlines, as well as examining correlation between beach processes and sediments.

Appropriate sampling points are selected across the width of a beach at breaks of slope (changes in gradient)
For each section between two sampling points, a clinometer and ranging rod are used to measure the slope angle (NB: points must be at identical height along the ranging rod, and ranging rods must be placed vertically into the ground.
The distance between each section is measured using a tape measure, and the gradient is calculated.
This is best done at low tide and during stable weather conditions to ensure the safety of the surveyors.

Sediments size and structure may be recorded along different coast lines to investigate transport and erosion processes and the relationship between sediments and other factors such as beach profile. (the same method for sediment analysis applies to rivers)

Sediments are selected using one of the sampling techniques, possibly by placing a quadrat on the beach along a transect.
Calipers may be used to measure the length (long axis) of pebbles.
An angularity chart or a pebbleometer may be used to investigate the roundness of the particles. (NB: an angularity chart is often subjective -different surveyors may come to different conclusions)
The weight off a rock may be measured using electronic scales. Alternatively, the weight of a rock may be recorded uing a spring balance and a plastic bag. First, the weight of the empty plastic bag is recorded. Then the rock is put in the plastic bag, which is attached to the spring balance. The weight is read off from the scale and the total weight is subtracted from that of the plastic bag to find the weight of the rock.
Longshore drift may be measured to examine the transport of coastal material and predict the supply of sediments in future.

13/09/2024

Evaluating hypotheses is one of the most scoring (and most common) questions on the paper. For each hypotheses:

State whether it is true, partially true or false.
Give a reason for your answer
Use statistics to support your answer
State any anomalies
Support anomalies using figures (data)
How surveys can be improved
Each paper that I have seen so far, asks how survey (collection) methods can be improved. These are the most common answers, of which at least two should always be applicable.

Do counts more regularly e.g. every one or two hours
Do counts, surveys or indexes in more

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