Wakjira Fekadu

19/11/2025

Prothrombin Time (PT) test
1. Objective
The objective of the test was to measure the time taken for plasma to clot, assessing the extrinsic and common coagulation pathways.
________________________________________
2. Principle
The test was based on adding tissue thromboplastin and calcium to citrated plasma. The time required for clot formation was measured. Prolonged PT indicated deficiencies of clotting factors I, II, V, VII, or X, or the effect of anticoagulant therapy.
________________________________________
3. Materials
• Citrated blood sample
• Centrifuge
• Test tubes
• Thromboplastin reagent
• Calcium chloride solution
• Stopwatch or timer
• Water bath (37°C)
• Personal protective equipment
________________________________________
4. Procedure (Manual / Laboratory Method)
1. The citrated blood sample was centrifuged to separate plasma.
2. Plasma was collected into a clean test tube.
3. The plasma was warmed in a water bath at 37°C.
4. Thromboplastin reagent and calcium chloride were added to the plasma.
5. The time from addition of reagents to clot formation was measured using a stopwatch.
6. The PT value was recorded in seconds.
7. The International Normalized Ratio (INR) was calculated if needed for anticoagulant monitoring.
________________________________________
5. Result
The normal PT ranged from 11–15 seconds (may vary with laboratory). Prolonged PT suggested coagulation factor deficiency, liver disease, vitamin K deficiency, or anticoagulant therapy.
________________________________________
6. Uses
• It was used to assess extrinsic and common coagulation pathways.
• It helped monitor warfarin or other oral anticoagulant therapy.
• It assisted in diagnosing liver disease or vitamin K deficiency.
• It was useful in evaluating bleeding disorders.
________________________________________
7. Consultation
The patient was advised to consult a physician or hematologist if PT was prolonged or abnormal for proper evaluation and treatment.

19/11/2025

Semen Analysis
1. Objective
The objective of the semen analysis was to evaluate male fertility by assessing semen volume, s***m concentration, motility, morphology, and other seminal parameters.
2. Principle
Semen analysis assessed physical and microscopic characteristics of semen. Parameters such as s***m count, motility, and morphology reflected s***matogenesis and male reproductive health. Chemical tests (e.g., pH) and liquefaction time were also measured.
3. Materials
• Fresh semen sample (collected by ma********on into a sterile container)
• Microscope and slides
• Hemocytometer (or automated s***m counter)
• Pipettes
• Incubator or warm chamber (37°C)
• pH paper
4. Procedure (Microscopic/Observation)
1. Semen was collected after 2–7 days of abstinence.
2. The sample was allowed to liquefy at room temperature for 20–30 minutes.
3. Semen volume was measured using a graduated container.
4. pH was determined using pH paper.
5. A drop of semen was placed on a slide, covered with a coverslip, and examined under a microscope.
6. S***m concentration, motility, and morphology were assessed.
7. Viscosity and presence of agglutination or other cells were also noted.
5. Result
• Volume: Normal 1.5–6 mL
• pH: Normal 7.2–8.0
• S***m concentration: ≥15 million/mL
• Motility: ≥40% motile
• Morphology: ≥4% normal forms (strict criteria)
• Liquefaction time: ≤60 minutes
• Abnormal values indicated possible infertility, infection, or other reproductive issues.
6. Uses
• Evaluated male fertility potential
• Assisted in infertility workup and assisted reproductive techniques (ART)
• Monitored effects of medical or environmental exposures on s***m
• Diagnosed ejaculatory or testicular disorders
7. Consultation
Abnormal semen parameters were reviewed by a clinician or fertility specialist. Repeat testing was recommended for confirmation. Further investigation included hormonal assays or genetic testing if indicated.

18/11/2025

GeneXpert MTB/RIF Test
1. Objective:
The objective of the test was to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) DNA in clinical samples and simultaneously identify rifampicin resistance.
2. Principle:
The test was based on nucleic acid amplification using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Specific MTB DNA sequences were amplified, and molecular probes detected rifampicin resistance-associated mutations in the rpoB gene.
3. Materials:
• Clinical sample (sputum, bronchial wash, or other respiratory specimens)
• GeneXpert MTB/RIF cartridge
• Sample reagent (containing NaOH and isopropanol)
• GeneXpert instrument
• Pipettes and sterile tips
• Personal protective equipment (PPE)
4. Procedure (Microscopic/Molecular):
1. The clinical sample was collected in a sterile container.
2. An appropriate volume of sample reagent was added to the specimen in a 2:1 ratio.
3. The mixture was vortexed and incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes for liquefaction and decontamination.
4. The treated sample was transferred into the GeneXpert cartridge.
5. The cartridge was loaded into the GeneXpert instrument, which performed automated DNA extraction, amplification, and detection.
6. Results were generated automatically, indicating MTB detection and rifampicin resistance status.
5. Result:
• The test showed [MTB detected/not detected].
• Rifampicin resistance was [detected/not detected].
6. Uses:
• Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB).
• Detection of rifampicin-resistant TB (RR-TB).
• Guiding appropriate anti-TB therapy.
• Monitoring TB control programs.
7. Consultation:
• Results were interpreted in consultation with a physician or TB specialist.
• Treatment decisions were made based on MTB detection and rifampicin susceptibility.

17/11/2025

16/11/2025

C-Reactive Protein (CRP) test
1. Objective:
The objective of the CRP test was to detect and quantify C-reactive protein in the blood as a marker of acute inflammation or infection.
2. Principle:
The principle involved the measurement of CRP, an acute-phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation. CRP binds to specific antigens and activates the complement system. Quantification was performed using immunoassays such as nephelometry, turbidimetry, or ELISA.
3. Materials:
• Patient serum or plasma
• CRP reagents or kits
• Test tubes and pipettes
• Spectrophotometer or automated analyzer
• Controls and standards
4. Procedure (Analytical):
1. Blood was collected and serum or plasma was separated by centrifugation.
2. Reagents or antibodies specific for CRP were added to the sample according to kit instructions.
3. The reaction was incubated under specified conditions.
4. The resulting color change or turbidity was measured using a spectrophotometer or automated analyzer.
5. CRP concentration was calculated using standard curves.
5. Result:
• Normal CRP:

16/11/2025

Marburg Virus General overview

Key facts
Marburg virus disease (MVD), formerly known as Marburg haemorrhagic fever, is a severe, often fatal illness in humans.
The average MVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied from 24% to 88% in past outbreaks.
Early supportive care with rehydration, and symptomatic treatment improves survival.
There are currently no approved vaccines or antiviral treatments for MVD, but a range of vaccines and drug therapies are under development.
Rousettus aegyptiacus, a fruit bat of the Pteropodidae family, is considered the natural host of Marburg virus. The Marburg virus is transmitted to people from fruit bats and spreads among humans through human-to-human transmission.
Community engagement is key to successfully controlling outbreaks.

Overview
Marburg virus (MARV) and Ravn virus (RAVV) of the species Orthomarburgvirus marburgense are the causative agents of Marburg virus disease (MVD). The disease has a case fatality ratio of up to 88%, but it can be much lower with good and early patient care.

Both viruses are part of the Filoviridae family (filovirus) to which Orthoebolavirus genus belongs. Though caused by different viruses, Ebola and Marburg diseases are clinically similar. Both diseases are rare but have the capacity to cause outbreaks with high fatality rates.

MVD was initially detected in 1967 after two simultaneous outbreaks in Marburg and Frankfurt in Germany, and in Belgrade, Serbia. These outbreaks were associated with laboratory work using African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) imported from Uganda. Subsequently, outbreaks and sporadic cases have been reported in Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, South Africa (in a person with recent travel history to Zimbabwe), Tanzania and Uganda. In 2008, two independent cases were reported in travellers who had visited a cave inhabited by Rousettus aegyptiacus bat colonies in Uganda. In September

15/11/2025

Erling Haaland 🇳🇴 has already outscored Alexander Isak's 🇸🇪 goal tally in all competitions from last season..

We're still in November 😳

15/11/2025

የማርበርግ ቫይረስ በሽታ ምንነት፣ መተላለፊያ መንገዶችና መከላከያ ዘዴዎች



Website: moh.gov.et
Facebook: facebook.com/EthiopiaFMoH
Twitter: x.com/fmohealth
YouTube: youtube.com/
Tiktok: tiktok.com/
Telegram: t.me/M0H_EThiopia
Linkedin: lnkd.in/ewFJ6VAB

12/11/2025

ወቅታዊ የጤና ጉዳይን አስመልክቶ የተሰጠ መግለጫ

Website: moh.gov.et
Facebook: facebook.com/EthiopiaFMoH
Twitter: x.com/fmohealth
YouTube: youtube.com/
Tiktok: tiktok.com/
Telegram: t.me/M0H_EThiopia
Linkedin: lnkd.in/ewFJ6VAB

12/11/2025

Prothrombin Time (PT) Test
1. Objective
The test was performed to measure the time it took for blood plasma to clot, assessing the efficiency of the extrinsic and common pathways of coagulation. It was mainly used to evaluate clotting disorders and monitor patients on anticoagulant therapy (e.g., warfarin).
2. Principle
The test was based on the activation of the extrinsic clotting pathway by adding tissue thromboplastin and calcium to citrated plasma. The time taken for clot formation was measured in seconds. A prolonged PT indicated a deficiency or inhibition of clotting factors I (fibrinogen), II (prothrombin), V, VII, or X.
3. Materials
• Patient’s citrated plasma sample
• Thromboplastin reagent (tissue factor + calcium)
• Coagulometer or water bath (37°C)
• Test tubes
• Timer or stopwatch
• Pipettes and tips
4. Procedure (Coagulation Test)
1. Blood was collected in a sodium citrate tube (9 parts blood to 1 part anticoagulant).
2. The sample was centrifuged to separate plasma.
3. 0.1 mL of plasma was pipetted into a test tube or cuvette and incubated at 37°C.
4. 0.2 mL of pre-warmed thromboplastin reagent was added.
5. The timer was started immediately, and the clot formation time was recorded in seconds.
6. The test was also performed using an automated coagulometer for accuracy.
5. Result
• Normal Range: 11–15 seconds
• Prolonged PT: Indicates deficiency or dysfunction of clotting factors, liver disease, vitamin K deficiency, or effect of anticoagulant drugs.
• INR (International Normalized Ratio): Calculated to standardize PT results; normal range is 0.8–1.2 for healthy individuals and 2.0–3.0 for patients on warfarin therapy.
6. Uses
• To assess bleeding and clotting disorders.
• To monitor patients on oral anticoagulants (warfarin).
• To evaluate liver function and vitamin K status.
• To investigate unexplained bleeding or bruising before surgery.
7. Consultation
Abnormal PT results were reviewed by a physician or hematologist. Adjustments in anticoagulant

12/11/2025

Acid-Fast Bacilli (AFB) Test
1. Objective
The test was performed to detect acid-fast bacilli, particularly Mycobacterium tuberculosis, in clinical specimens like sputum, pus, or tissue samples.
2. Principle
AFB have a lipid-rich cell wall containing mycolic acids, which resist decolorization by acid-alcohol after staining with carbol fuchsin.
• Ziehl-Neelsen or Kinyoun staining methods were commonly used.
• Acid-fast organisms retained the red color of carbol fuchsin, while non-acid-fast cells were counterstained blue with methylene blue.
3. Materials
• Clinical specimen (sputum, pus, tissue)
• Clean glass slides
• Carbol fuchsin stain
• Acid-alcohol solution
• Methylene blue or malachite green (counterstain)
• Bunsen burner or hot plate
• Microscope with oil immersion
• PPE (gloves, lab coat, mask)
4. Procedure (Microscopic)
1. A thin smear of the specimen was prepared on a clean slide and air-dried.
2. The smear was heat-fixed over a flame.
3. Carbol fuchsin was applied and heated gently to steaming for a few minutes.
4. The slide was washed with water.
5. Acid-alcohol solution was applied to decolorize non-acid-fast cells.
6. The smear was rinsed and counterstained with methylene blue for 30–60 seconds.
7. After washing and air-drying, the slide was examined under oil immersion.
5. Result
• Positive: Red, slender, slightly curved rods were seen against a blue background, indicating AFB.
• Negative: No red bacilli were observed; only blue-stained background cells were visible.
• Grading (optional) was done according to the number of bacilli per field.
6. Uses
• Diagnosis of pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis.
• Detection of non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections.
• Monitoring response to anti-tubercular therapy.
• Screening in high-risk or symptomatic patients.
7. Consultation
Positive findings were reported to a clinician or TB specialist. Further tests, such as culture, GeneXpert, or PCR, were recommended for confirmation. Treatment plans were adjusted