Wakjira Fekadu

25/12/2025

Troponin CKMB Comparison

Troponin and CKMB are cardiac biomarkers used in suspected myocardial infarction. Troponin is highly specific and remains elevated longer, making it the primary diagnostic marker. CKMB rises and falls faster, which helps in detecting reinfarction or recent cardiac injury

25/12/2025

CRP ESR Inflammation Test Comparison

CRP and ESR are inflammatory markers used in infection and autoimmune diseases. This comparison shows how CRP rises quickly in acute inflammation while ESR reflects chronic inflammatory changes and disease activity.

24/12/2025

🛑 TYPES OF CANCER 🛑

💠 Carcinoma is a cancer that starts in the ectoderm or endoderm of epithelial cells of skin or the tissues that line other organs.

💠 Sarcoma is a cancer of connective tissues such as bones, muscles, cartilage, and blood vessels.

💠 Leukemia is a cancer of bone marrow, which creates blood cells.

💠 Lymphoma is a cancer of the immune system that starts in the lymph glands or cells of the lymphatic system

💠 Myeloma is a cancer of the immune system that starts in plasma cells ( WBC)

💠 Melanoma is a cancer of skin that develops when melanocytes (the cells that give the skin its tan or brown color) start to grow out of control.

💠 Germinoma is a cancer derived from germ cell which are commonly found in the brain of young ages.

24/12/2025

🔬 Organ-Specific Cancer Biomarkers & Their Uses

Cancer biomarkers help clinicians detect cancer early, guide treatment decisions, and monitor therapeutic response. Each biomarker is often linked to a specific organ or cancer type, making it a powerful tool in precision oncology.🧑‍🔬🔬

🧬 Key Organ-Specific Cancer Biomarkers

🟦 Prostate – PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen)
• Early detection and monitoring of prostate cancer.

🟪 O***y – CA-125 (Cancer Antigen 125)
• Diagnosis, staging, and follow-up of ovarian cancer.

🟧 Liver – AFP (Alpha-Fetoprotein)
• Biomarker for hepatocellular carcinoma and germ cell tumors.

🟩 Breast – HER2/neu, BRCA1/BRCA2
• HER2 guides targeted therapy.
• BRCA mutations indicate hereditary breast & ovarian cancer risk.

🟫 Pancreas – CA 19-9
• Used in prognosis and monitoring of pancreatic cancer.

⬛ Colon/Rectum – CEA (Carcinoembryonic Antigen), KRAS Mutation
• CEA helps track colorectal cancer recurrence.
• KRAS mutation guides therapy selection.

⬜ Lung – EGFR Mutation, ALK Rearrangement
• Crucial for planning targeted therapies in lung cancer.

🟨 Thyroid – Thyroglobulin, Calcitonin
• Thyroglobulin monitors papillary & follicular thyroid cancers.
• Calcitonin is elevated in medullary thyroid carcinoma.

17/12/2025

Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Test
1. Objective
The objective was to measure the level of alpha-fetoprotein in blood to assist in the diagnosis and monitoring of certain cancers and fetal abnormalities.
2. Principle
The test was based on an immunoassay principle. AFP present in the sample reacted with specific anti-AFP antibodies to form an antigen–antibody complex. The measured signal was proportional to the AFP concentration.
3. Materials
• Venous blood sample
• AFP reagent kit
• Test tubes
• Micropipette and tips
• Incubator
• Analyzer (ELISA/CLIA)
• Standard and control sera
4. Procedure (Laboratory method)
• Blood was collected under aseptic conditions.
• Serum was separated by centrifugation.
• Sample, standards, and controls were added to designated wells/tubes.
• AFP reagents were added as per kit instructions.
• The mixture was incubated for the specified time.
• Washing and detection steps were performed.
• AFP level was measured using an analyzer.
5. Result
The AFP concentration was obtained and recorded in ng/mL.
6. Uses
• It was used to screen and monitor hepatocellular carcinoma.
• It helped in detecting germ cell tumors.
• It was used in prenatal screening for neural tube defects.
• It aided in monitoring treatment response.
7. Consultation (Interpretation)
• Normal adult level:

15/12/2025

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) Test
1. Objective
The objective was to measure the percentage of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) in blood to assess long-term glycemic control over the previous 2–3 months.
2. Principle
The test was based on the measurement of hemoglobin that had undergone non-enzymatic glycation with glucose. The amount of HbA1c formed was directly proportional to the average blood glucose concentration during the lifespan of red blood cells. The assay was commonly performed using immunoturbidimetric or HPLC methods.
3. Materials
• Whole blood sample collected in EDTA tube
• HbA1c reagent kit
• Test tubes or sample cups
• Micropipette and tips
• Analyzer (HPLC or immunoassay analyzer)
• Calibrators and controls
4. Procedure (Laboratory method)
• Venous blood was collected in an EDTA tube.
• The sample was mixed gently to prevent clotting.
• The blood sample was loaded into the analyzer.
• Hemoglobin was separated and HbA1c fraction was measured.
• The analyzer calculated the HbA1c percentage automatically.
5. Result
The HbA1c value was obtained and reported as a percentage (%) of total hemoglobin.
6. Uses
• It was used to diagnose diabetes mellitus.
• It helped in monitoring long-term glycemic control.
• It assisted in assessing the risk of diabetic complications.
• It was useful for evaluating treatment effectiveness.
7. Consultation (Interpretation)
• Normal:

12/12/2025

CBC interpretation

19/11/2025

Prothrombin Time (PT) test
1. Objective
The objective of the test was to measure the time taken for plasma to clot, assessing the extrinsic and common coagulation pathways.
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2. Principle
The test was based on adding tissue thromboplastin and calcium to citrated plasma. The time required for clot formation was measured. Prolonged PT indicated deficiencies of clotting factors I, II, V, VII, or X, or the effect of anticoagulant therapy.
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3. Materials
• Citrated blood sample
• Centrifuge
• Test tubes
• Thromboplastin reagent
• Calcium chloride solution
• Stopwatch or timer
• Water bath (37°C)
• Personal protective equipment
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4. Procedure (Manual / Laboratory Method)
1. The citrated blood sample was centrifuged to separate plasma.
2. Plasma was collected into a clean test tube.
3. The plasma was warmed in a water bath at 37°C.
4. Thromboplastin reagent and calcium chloride were added to the plasma.
5. The time from addition of reagents to clot formation was measured using a stopwatch.
6. The PT value was recorded in seconds.
7. The International Normalized Ratio (INR) was calculated if needed for anticoagulant monitoring.
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5. Result
The normal PT ranged from 11–15 seconds (may vary with laboratory). Prolonged PT suggested coagulation factor deficiency, liver disease, vitamin K deficiency, or anticoagulant therapy.
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6. Uses
• It was used to assess extrinsic and common coagulation pathways.
• It helped monitor warfarin or other oral anticoagulant therapy.
• It assisted in diagnosing liver disease or vitamin K deficiency.
• It was useful in evaluating bleeding disorders.
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7. Consultation
The patient was advised to consult a physician or hematologist if PT was prolonged or abnormal for proper evaluation and treatment.

19/11/2025

Semen Analysis
1. Objective
The objective of the semen analysis was to evaluate male fertility by assessing semen volume, s***m concentration, motility, morphology, and other seminal parameters.
2. Principle
Semen analysis assessed physical and microscopic characteristics of semen. Parameters such as s***m count, motility, and morphology reflected s***matogenesis and male reproductive health. Chemical tests (e.g., pH) and liquefaction time were also measured.
3. Materials
• Fresh semen sample (collected by ma********on into a sterile container)
• Microscope and slides
• Hemocytometer (or automated s***m counter)
• Pipettes
• Incubator or warm chamber (37°C)
• pH paper
4. Procedure (Microscopic/Observation)
1. Semen was collected after 2–7 days of abstinence.
2. The sample was allowed to liquefy at room temperature for 20–30 minutes.
3. Semen volume was measured using a graduated container.
4. pH was determined using pH paper.
5. A drop of semen was placed on a slide, covered with a coverslip, and examined under a microscope.
6. S***m concentration, motility, and morphology were assessed.
7. Viscosity and presence of agglutination or other cells were also noted.
5. Result
• Volume: Normal 1.5–6 mL
• pH: Normal 7.2–8.0
• S***m concentration: ≥15 million/mL
• Motility: ≥40% motile
• Morphology: ≥4% normal forms (strict criteria)
• Liquefaction time: ≤60 minutes
• Abnormal values indicated possible infertility, infection, or other reproductive issues.
6. Uses
• Evaluated male fertility potential
• Assisted in infertility workup and assisted reproductive techniques (ART)
• Monitored effects of medical or environmental exposures on s***m
• Diagnosed ejaculatory or testicular disorders
7. Consultation
Abnormal semen parameters were reviewed by a clinician or fertility specialist. Repeat testing was recommended for confirmation. Further investigation included hormonal assays or genetic testing if indicated.

18/11/2025

GeneXpert MTB/RIF Test
1. Objective:
The objective of the test was to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) DNA in clinical samples and simultaneously identify rifampicin resistance.
2. Principle:
The test was based on nucleic acid amplification using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Specific MTB DNA sequences were amplified, and molecular probes detected rifampicin resistance-associated mutations in the rpoB gene.
3. Materials:
• Clinical sample (sputum, bronchial wash, or other respiratory specimens)
• GeneXpert MTB/RIF cartridge
• Sample reagent (containing NaOH and isopropanol)
• GeneXpert instrument
• Pipettes and sterile tips
• Personal protective equipment (PPE)
4. Procedure (Microscopic/Molecular):
1. The clinical sample was collected in a sterile container.
2. An appropriate volume of sample reagent was added to the specimen in a 2:1 ratio.
3. The mixture was vortexed and incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes for liquefaction and decontamination.
4. The treated sample was transferred into the GeneXpert cartridge.
5. The cartridge was loaded into the GeneXpert instrument, which performed automated DNA extraction, amplification, and detection.
6. Results were generated automatically, indicating MTB detection and rifampicin resistance status.
5. Result:
• The test showed [MTB detected/not detected].
• Rifampicin resistance was [detected/not detected].
6. Uses:
• Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB).
• Detection of rifampicin-resistant TB (RR-TB).
• Guiding appropriate anti-TB therapy.
• Monitoring TB control programs.
7. Consultation:
• Results were interpreted in consultation with a physician or TB specialist.
• Treatment decisions were made based on MTB detection and rifampicin susceptibility.

17/11/2025

16/11/2025

C-Reactive Protein (CRP) test
1. Objective:
The objective of the CRP test was to detect and quantify C-reactive protein in the blood as a marker of acute inflammation or infection.
2. Principle:
The principle involved the measurement of CRP, an acute-phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation. CRP binds to specific antigens and activates the complement system. Quantification was performed using immunoassays such as nephelometry, turbidimetry, or ELISA.
3. Materials:
• Patient serum or plasma
• CRP reagents or kits
• Test tubes and pipettes
• Spectrophotometer or automated analyzer
• Controls and standards
4. Procedure (Analytical):
1. Blood was collected and serum or plasma was separated by centrifugation.
2. Reagents or antibodies specific for CRP were added to the sample according to kit instructions.
3. The reaction was incubated under specified conditions.
4. The resulting color change or turbidity was measured using a spectrophotometer or automated analyzer.
5. CRP concentration was calculated using standard curves.
5. Result:
• Normal CRP: