Wakjira Fekadu

28/10/2025

Liver Function Test (LFT)
1. Objective
The objective of the Liver Function Test was to evaluate the functional and structural status of the liver by measuring serum levels of enzymes, proteins, and bilirubin.
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2. Principle
The principle was based on the estimation of liver enzymes and biochemical substances that reflected liver activity. Increased enzyme levels such as ALT, AST, ALP, and GGT indicated liver cell damage or obstruction, while changes in bilirubin and protein levels reflected impaired liver metabolism and excretion.
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3. Materials
The materials used were:
• Patient’s serum sample
• Test tubes and pipettes
• Reagents for ALT, AST, ALP, GGT, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, and total protein
• Spectrophotometer or automated biochemistry analyzer
• Distilled water and controls
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4. Procedure (Microscopic / Analytical)
1. Blood was collected from the patient and allowed to clot.
2. The serum was separated by centrifugation.
3. Specific reagents were added to the serum according to each test protocol (ALT, AST, ALP, etc.).
4. The reaction mixture was incubated at the required temperature and time.
5. The absorbance was measured using a spectrophotometer at specific wavelengths.
6. The enzyme activity or concentration was calculated according to the standard or analyzer reading.
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5. Result
The results were expressed in units per liter (U/L) or mg/dL.
Normal values:
• ALT: 7–56 U/L
• AST: 5–40 U/L
• ALP: 44–147 U/L
• GGT: 9–48 U/L
• Total bilirubin: 0.2–1.2 mg/dL
• Total protein: 6.0–8.3 g/dL
• Albumin: 3.5–5.0 g/dL
Increased values indicated liver damage, obstruction, or other hepatic disorders.
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6. Uses
The test was used to:
• Diagnose liver diseases such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and jaundice
• Monitor liver function in patients on hepatotoxic drugs
• Assess t

28/10/2025

ሄፓቶሴሉላር ካርሲኖማ (HCC)፡ የዝምተኛው ገዳይ ማንነት

ሄፓቶሴሉላር ካርሲኖማ (HCC)፣ በተለምዶ የጉበት ካንሰር በመባል የሚታወቀው፣ በኢትዮጵያ ውስጥ ካሉት ትልቅ የጤና ችግሮች መካከል አንዱ ነው። ይህ ችግር በአገራችን ካለው የሄፓታይተስ ቫይረስ (በተለይ ሄፓታይተስ ቢ እና ሲ) ከፍተኛ ስርጭት ጋር የሚዛመድ ነው።
ከሄፓታይቲስ ጋር ያለው ግንኙነት፡- በሄፓታይተስ ቫይረስ ከተጠቁ ታካሚዎች በየዓመቱ 20% የሚሆኑት ችግራቸው ወደ HCC (የጉበት ካንሰር) የመሸጋገር አደጋ አለው።
ዋናው ፈተና የካንሰሩ ባሕርይ ነው፡- HCC ገና በመጀመርያ እና ሊድን በሚችልበት ደረጃ ላይ እያለ ብዙ ጊዜ ምንም ምልክት አያሳይም። በአገራችን ውስጥ የተደራጀ የቅድመ ካንሰር (screening) ፕሮግራም አለመኖር ሲታከልበት፣ በሽታው ወደ ከፍተኛ ደረጃ እስኪደርስ ድረስ ሳይታወቅ ይቆያል። ለዚህም ነው HCC (የጉበት ካንሰር) "ዝምተኛው ገዳይ" ተብሎ የሚጠራው።
ዋናው መልዕክት እና መፍትሔው:

ቅድመ ምርመራ ሕይወት አድን ነው: HCC በጊዜ ከታወቀ 'ሊቆረጥ' (በቀዶ ህክምና ሊወገድ) እንደሚችል ከተረጋገጠ፣ የቀዶ ጥገና ሕክምና ለታካሚው ተመራጭ እና ሙሉ በሙሉ የመዳን ዕድል የሚሰጥ ሕክምና ነው።
ከሚያስፈልጉ ርምጃዎች ውስጥ፡ ወደ ካንሰር የሚወስደውን ሂደት ለመከላከል የሄፓታይተስ ቫይረስን በተመለከተ ግንዛቤ መፍጠር፣ የቅድመ ካንሰር ምርመራ በየጊዜው ማድረግ እና ካንሰር ሲከሰት ተገቢውን ሕክምና በጊዜው ማድረግ ቅድሚያ ሊሰጠው ይገባል።

Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC): Unmasking Ethiopia's Silent Killer

Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC), the most common form of liver cancer, is a critical public health challenge in Ethiopia. This is not just a medical statistic—it is a reflection of the high prevalence of chronic viral hepatitis (Hepatitis B and C) that our country faces.
The link is stark: Approximately 20% of patients living with chronic viral hepatitis are at risk of developing HCC annually.
The major hurdle is its nature: HCC is often asymptomatic in its early, curable stages. Coupled with the absence of a structured national screening program in Ethiopia, this means the disease frequently goes undetected until it has progressed significantly. This is precisely why HCC is tragically nicknamed as "silent killer."
The Critical Takeaway:

Early Detection is Life-Saving: When HCC is caught early and remains resectable (meaning it can be surgically removed), surgical management offers the best chance for a curative outcome.
The Need for Action: We must prioritize efforts to increase awareness, screening, and effective management of chronic viral hepatitis to prevent this pr

27/10/2025

Complete Blood Count (CBC) test

I. Introduction:

• Definition and Overview:
• Begin by defining what a Complete Blood Count (CBC) is: "A Complete Blood Count (CBC) is a common blood test that evaluates the cells circulating in the blood. It provides valuable information about the overall health of an individual and can help detect a wide range of conditions."
• Components of the CBC:
• Briefly mention the major components measured in a CBC: "The CBC typically includes measurements of red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets."
• Clinical Significance:
• Explain why the CBC is important: "The CBC is a widely used screening test that can help diagnose and monitor various conditions, including infections, anemia, bleeding disorders, and certain types of cancer."
• Brief History (Optional):
• You could add a brief sentence or two about the history of the CBC and how it has evolved over time.

II. Objective:

• Purpose of the Test:
• Clearly state the primary objective of performing a CBC: "The primary objective of a Complete Blood Count (CBC) is to evaluate the cellular components of the blood to aid in the diagnosis and monitoring of various medical conditions."
• Specific Objectives:
• List the specific objectives in more detail:
* "To assess the number and characteristics of red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets."
* "To detect abnormalities in cell counts, size, shape, or maturity."
* "To aid in the diagnosis of anemia, infections, bleeding disorders, and certain types of cancer."
* "To monitor the response to treatment for various medical conditions."

III. Method:

• Sample Collection:
• Describe the sample collection pr

27/10/2025

Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) Test
1. Objective:
The objective of this test was to detect the presence of Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in the patient’s serum or plasma, which indicated an active Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection.
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2. Principle:
The principle of the HBsAg test was based on an immunochromatographic or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique.
In ELISA, the wells were coated with antibodies specific to HBsAg. When the patient’s serum was added, any HBsAg present bound to these antibodies. A secondary enzyme-labeled antibody was then added to form an antigen–antibody–enzyme complex. When substrate was added, a color change occurred, indicating a positive result.
In rapid card tests, HBsAg in the sample bound to colored antibodies on the test strip, producing a visible line.
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3. Materials:
• Patient’s serum or plasma sample
• HBsAg test kit (ELISA plate or rapid test device)
• Positive and negative control sera
• Wash buffer (for ELISA)
• Enzyme-conjugated antibody reagent
• Substrate solution (e.g., TMB)
• Stop solution (e.g., 1N H₂SO₄)
• Micropipettes and tips
• Timer
• ELISA reader or visual observation setup
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4. Procedure (Microscopic / ELISA Observation):
1. The test device or ELISA wells were labeled for patient and control samples.
2. Patient’s serum was added to the test well or sample port.
3. The device or plate was incubated at room temperature to allow antigen–antibody binding.
4. For ELISA, the wells were washed to remove unbound material.
5. Enzyme-linked antibody conjugate was added and incubated again.
6. Substrate solution was added to produce a color reaction.
7. The reaction was stopped with stop solution, and absorbance was read at 450 nm using an ELISA reader.
8. In rapid card tests, results were read visually within 15–20 minutes by observing colored lines.

15/10/2025

15/10/2025

🌺Hepatitis C (HCV – Hepatitis C Virus)🌺

🌺Hepatitis C is an inflammation of the liver caused by the Hepatitis C virus (HCV).
🔸It is primarily transmitted through blood-to-blood contact, such as:
• Sharing needles or syringes
• Tattooing or body piercing with unsterile equipment
• Receiving blood transfusions or blood products contaminated with the virus (mainly in the past)
• Mother-to-child transmission (rare)

🌺Blood Tests for Hepatitis C (Hepatitis C Tests)
There are several types of laboratory tests for HCV, depending on the purpose of testing:
🍁1. Anti-HCV (HCV Antibody Test)
🔸 Detects antibodies against the HCV virus.
👉Positive result: Indicates current or past infection with Hepatitis C virus.
👉Negative result: Means no infection, or the infection is too recent for antibodies to be detected.

🍁2. HCV Ag (Hepatitis C Virus Core Antigen Test)
🔸 Detects core antigen of the virus — considered an intermediate test between Anti-HCV and HCV RNA.
It can detect infection earlier than Anti-HCV but is less expensive than HCV RNA (PCR).
The antigen appears in the blood when the virus starts replicating, before the immune system produces antibodies.
👉HCV Ag Positive: Indicates an active infection (virus present in the blood).
👉HCV Ag Negative: May indicate no infection or a viral load below the detection limit.

🍁3. HCV RNA (PCR Test)
🔸 Detects the genetic material (RNA) of the virus directly.
🔸Used to confirm whether the virus is currently present in the body.
👉HCV RNA Positive: Indicates an active infection.
👉HCV RNA Negative: Indicates no detectable virus (may have cleared naturally or after treatment).

🍁4. HCV Genotype Test ( Genotype 1–6 ( and subtype such as 1a, 1b, 3a etc.))
👉 Determines the genotype (strain) of the HCV virus to help select the most appropriate treatment regimen. Share Knowledge an

29/09/2025

PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen) Test

1. Objective

The objective of the test was to measure the level of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the patient’s blood to aid in the detection and monitoring of prostate disorders such as prostatitis, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and prostate cancer.

2. Principle

The test was based on the principle of immunoassay, where specific antibodies bound to PSA in the blood sample. The antigen–antibody reaction was then detected and quantified, and the amount of PSA present was proportional to the signal measured.

3. Materials

Patient’s blood sample (serum)

Sterile syringe and vacutainer

Centrifuge

PSA immunoassay kit (ELISA or chemiluminescence-based)

Micropipettes and tips

Test tubes and racks

Microscopic equipment (for confirming procedural quality, not for direct PSA detection)

4. Procedure (Microscopic/Immunoassay-based)

A venous blood sample was collected and allowed to clot.

The sample was centrifuged, and serum was separated.

The serum was added to wells coated with anti-PSA antibodies.

After incubation, unbound substances were washed away.

A secondary antibody conjugated with an enzyme was added, which bound specifically to the captured PSA.

A substrate solution was added, producing a measurable color change.

The reaction was observed microscopically to check uniformity and optical density was measured using an ELISA reader.

5. Result

The PSA level was reported in nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL). Normal results were usually 0–4 ng/mL. Elevated results indicated possible benign or malignant prostate conditions, depending on the degree of elevation.

6. Uses

It was used as a screening tool for prostate cancer.

It was used to monitor disease progression or recurrence in prostate cancer patients.

It was used to evaluate prostate health in cases of urinary or reproductive complaints.

It was used to differentiate between benign prostatic hyperplasia and malignancy.

7. Consultation

The results wer

26/09/2025

KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) Test
1. Objective
The objective of the KOH test was to detect fungal elements (hyphae, yeast cells, spores) in clinical specimens such as skin scrapings, nail clippings, or hair, and to differentiate Gram-negative bacteria from Gram-positive bacteria in some cases.
2. Principle
The principle was that KOH (10–20%) dissolved keratin and other tissue debris, clearing the background, while fungal cell walls and yeast remained intact due to their chitin content. This made them easily visible under the microscope. In microbiology, the 3% KOH test was also used to distinguish Gram-negative bacteria (which lysed and released DNA, forming a sticky string) from Gram-positive bacteria (which did not).
3. Materials
• 10–20% KOH solution (for fungal microscopy)
• 3% KOH solution (for bacterial Gram reaction check)
• Glass slides and cover slips
• Inoculating loop or sterile scalpel
• Specimens (skin scrapings, nail clippings, hair, or bacterial colony)
• Dropper or pipette
• Light microscope
• Personal protective equipment (gloves, lab coat)
4. Procedure
For Fungal Detection:
1. A small portion of specimen was placed on a clean glass slide.
2. One or two drops of 10–20% KOH solution were added.
3. A cover slip was placed gently, and the slide was warmed slightly (optional) to accelerate clearing.
4. The preparation was examined under the microscope for fungal hyphae or yeast cells.
For Bacterial Differentiation (KOH String Test):
1. A loopful of bacterial colony was mixed with a drop of 3% KOH on a slide.
2. The suspension was stirred for 60–120 seconds.
3. Formation of a mucoid/stringy material indicated a Gram-negative organism, while no string formation indicated Gram-positive.
5. Result
• Fungal KOH Test: Hyphae appeared as long, refractile, branching filaments; yeast cells appeared round/oval with budding. Background tissue appeared dissolved/cleared.
• Bacterial KOH String Test: Gram-negative bacteria showed viscous, stringy material; Gram-positi

01/09/2025

KOH Mount Test (for fungi)
1. Objective
The objective of the KOH mount preparation was to demonstrate the presence of fungal elements (hyphae, yeast cells, pseudohyphae, or spores) in clinical specimens such as skin scrapings, hair, nails, or body fluids.
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2. Principle
The principle of the test was based on the ability of 10–20% potassium hydroxide (KOH) to dissolve keratin and cellular debris in the specimen while leaving behind the fungal cell walls, which resisted digestion and remained visible under the microscope.
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3. Materials
The materials used were:
• Clean glass slides and cover slips
• 10–20% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution
• Forceps and scalpel for specimen collection
• Inoculating loop or sterile needle
• Dropper/pipette
• Light microscope with 10× and 40× objectives
• Nail/skin/hair scrapings or clinical sample
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4. Procedure (Microscopic Examination)
1. A small portion of the specimen (skin scrapings, hair, nail clippings, or discharge) was placed on a clean glass slide.
2. One to two drops of KOH solution (10–20%) were added onto the specimen.
3. A cover slip was placed gently over the preparation to avoid air bubbles.
4. The preparation was allowed to stand for 10–20 minutes (or gently warmed) to soften keratin and clear background debris.
5. The slide was then examined under the low power (10×) and high power (40×) objectives of the microscope.
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5. Result
• Positive result: Fungal elements such as septate or non-septate hyphae, yeast cells, pseudohyphae, or spores were seen clearly against a partially cleared background.
• Negative result: No fungal structures were observed. Only cleared epithelial cells and debris were present.
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6. Uses
The KOH mount test was used for:
• Rapid bedside diagnosis of dermatophytic infections (skin, hair, nails).
• Demo

31/08/2025

PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen) test
1. Objective
The objective of the test was to measure the level of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the blood to assist in the detection of prostate disorders such as benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, and prostate cancer.
________________________________________
2. Principle
The principle was based on an immunoassay method. PSA, a glycoprotein produced by prostate cells, was detected in serum using specific antibodies. The antigen–antibody reaction generated a measurable signal (commonly chemiluminescence or ELISA), which was proportional to the PSA concentration.
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3. Materials
The materials used were:
• Patient’s venous blood sample (serum)
• Sterile syringe and vacutainer
• Centrifuge
• PSA immunoassay kit (ELISA/chemiluminescence)
• Micropipettes and tips
• Microplate reader (for ELISA)
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4. Procedure (Laboratory)
1. About 2–3 ml of venous blood was collected from the patient.
2. The blood sample was allowed to clot and then centrifuged to separate serum.
3. The serum was transferred to the reaction wells (or cartridge) of the PSA kit.
4. The sample was incubated with anti-PSA antibodies conjugated to an enzyme/label.
5. After washing, a substrate was added to develop color or luminescence.
6. The intensity of the reaction was measured using a microplate reader or automated analyzer.
7. PSA levels were calculated and reported in ng/mL.
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5. Result
The test result showed the concentration of PSA in the serum.
• Normal: Less than 4 ng/mL
• Borderline/Moderately raised: 4–10 ng/mL
• High: Above 10 ng/mL, suggestive of increased risk of prostate cancer (but also possible in BPH or prostatitis).
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6. Uses
• The test was used for early detection of prostate cancer.
• It was used to differentiate benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) from malignant growths.
• It was usef