19/11/2024
This article is about the diverse theistic views within Hinduism. For specific deities, see Hindu deities.
In Hinduism, the conception of God varies in its diverse religio-philosophical traditions.[6] Hinduism comprises a wide range of beliefs about God and Divinity, such as henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, agnosticism, atheism, and nontheism.[9]
Deities Vishnu, Lakshmi, Shiva, Parvati and Ganesha. These deities have distinct and complex personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of and are worshipped as incarnations of the same Ultimate Reality called Brahman.[1][note 1]
Forms of theism find mention in the Bhagavad Gita. Emotional or loving devotion (bhakti) to a primary god such as avatars of Vishnu (Krishna for example), Shiva, and Devi (as emerged in the early medieval period) is now known as the Bhakti movement.[10][11] Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major theistic Hindu traditions: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism worship the Hindu deities Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi as the Supreme God respectively, or consider all Hindu deities as aspects of the same, Supreme Reality or the eternal and formless metaphysical Absolute, called Brahman in Hinduism, or, translated from Sanskrit terminology, Svayaṁ-Bhāgavan ("God Itself"). Other minor sects such as Ganapatya and Saura focus on the deities Ganesha or Surya as the Supreme.
Hindus following Advaita Vedānta consider ātman, the individual soul within every living being, to be the same as Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi,[12][13][14] or, alternatively, identical to the eternal and formless metaphysical Absolute called Brahman.[21] Such a philosophical system of Advaita or non-dualism as it developed in the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in the Upanishads, was popularized by the Indian philosopher, Vedic scholar, teacher, and mystic Ādi Śaṅkara in the 8th century CE, and has been vastly influential on Hinduism.[22][23][24] Therefore, Advaitins believe that Brahman is the sole Supreme Being (Para Brahman) and Ultimate Reality that exists beyond the (mis)perceived reality of a world of multiple objects and transitory persons.[25]
Hindus following Dvaita Vedānta consider that the jīvātman (individual self) and the eternal and formless metaphysical Absolute called Brahman in Hinduism exist as independent realities, and that these are fundamentally distinct.[26][27] Such a philosophical system of Dvaita or dualism as it developed in the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in the Vedas, was popularized by the Indian philosopher, Vedic scholar, and theologian Madhvācārya in the 13th century CE, and has been another major influence on Hinduism.[28] In particular, the influence of Madhvācārya's philosophy has been most prominent and pronounced on the Chaitanya school of Bengali Vaishnavism.[29]
Henotheism, kathenotheism, and equitheism
Panentheism and non-theism
Monotheism
Brahman
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Main articles: Brahman and Para Brahman
Many traditions within Hinduism share the Vedic idea of a metaphysical ultimate reality and truth called Brahman. According to Jan Gonda, Brahman denoted the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas" in the earliest Vedic texts. The early Vedic religious understanding of Brahman underwent a series of abstractions in the Hindu scriptures that followed the Vedic scriptures. These scriptures would reveal a vast body of insights into the nature of Brahman as originally revealed in the Vedas. These Hindu traditions that emerged from or identified with the Vedic scriptures and that maintained the notion of a metaphysical ultimate reality would identify that ultimate reality as Brahman. Hindu adherents to these traditions within Hinduism revere Hindu deities and, indeed, all of existence, as aspects of the Brahman.[75][76] The deities in Hinduism are not considered to be almighty, omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent, and spirituality is considered to be seeking the ultimate truth that is possible by a number of paths.[77][78][79] Like other Indian religions, in Hinduism, deities are born, they live and they die in every kalpa (eon, cycle of existence).[80]
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe.[81][82][83] In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.[82][84][85] It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.[81][86][87] Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.[81][88]
Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".[89] Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads.[90] The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle.[91] In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda (truth-consciousness-bliss)[92][93] and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.[86][94][note 2][note 3]
Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman (Self),[90][97] personal,[note 4] impersonal[note 5] or Para Brahman,[note 6] or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.[98] In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being, and therein it shares conceptual framework of God in major world religions.[85][66][99] In non-dual schools of Hinduism such as the monist Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.[87][100][101]
The Upanishads contain several mahā-vākyas or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:[102]
Text Upanishad Translation Reference
अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि
aham brahmāsmi Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10 "I am Brahman" [103]
अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म
ayam ātmā brahma Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5 "The Self is Brahman" [104]
सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म
sarvam khalvidam brahma Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 "All this is Brahman" [105]
एकमेवाद्वितीयम्
ekam evadvitiyam Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1 "That [Brahman] is one, without a second" [106]
तत्त्वमसि
tat tvam asi Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq. "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman") [107][108]
प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म
prajnānam brahma Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7 "Knowledge is Brahman" [109]
Saguna and nirguna
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Main articles: Nirguna Brahman and Saguna Brahman
While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of Brahman and Atman, they also expound on Brahman as saguna Brahman—the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna Brahman—the Brahman without attributes.[110] The nirguna Brahman is the Brahman as it really is, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing nirguna Brahman, but the Hinduism schools declare saguna Brahman to be ultimately illusory.[111] The concept of the saguna Brahman, such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.[111]
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—Nirguna and Saguna.[112] Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[113] Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[113] The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.[112][114] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives: one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.[114] Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.[112] Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[112] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[114]
Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[115] Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.[115] These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.[112]
