07/04/2026
SURROGACY
Insight into Different Aspects of Surrogacy Practices
Surrogacy is an important method of assisted reproductive technology wherein a woman carries pregnancy for another couple. Although this arrangement seems to be beneficial for all parties concerned, there are complex social, ethical, moral, and legal issues associated with it. It is these complexities that have made this practice unpopular in many parts of the world. Surrogacy is an important medical service for all those couples who would otherwise not have been able to produce a child.
Types of Surrogacy
• Traditional surrogacy(genetic/partial/straight) surrogacy occurs when the surrogate is the genetic parent and provides their own oocyte to be fertilized via intrauterine insemination (IUI) or IVF with s***m from the IP father with subsequent transfer of the embryo back into their own uterus.
• Gestational surrogacy((host/full surrogacy) is the process in which a gestational carrier (GC) gestates a pregnancy after transfer of an embryo from the intended parents (IPs) or donors. The embryo is created via the in vitro fertilization (IVF) process, which involves fertilization of an oocyte by s***m outside the body in an IVF laboratory.
Surrogacy is further classified as commercial or altruistic.
Commercial: The surrogate receives a fee above medical expenses (legal in many countries supporting surrogacy.
Altruistic: Only medical and "reasonable" expenses are covered (common in the UK, Canada, and parts of Australia).
INTRODUCTION
The word “surrogate” is rooted in Latin “Subrogare” (to substitute), which means “appointed to act in the place of.” It means a substitute, especially a person deputizing for another in a specific role, so the surrogate mother implies a woman who becomes pregnant and gives birth to a child with the intention of giving away this child to another person or couple, commonly referred to as the “intended” or “commissioning” parents. Surrogacy is an important fertility treatment, wherein advent of in vitro fertilization (IVF) has made motherhood possible for women without uterus, with uterine anomalies preventing pregnancies, with serious medical problems, or with other contraindications for pregnancy, to achieve motherhood through the use of embryo created by themselves or donor and transferred to the uterus of gestational carrier. This technique has also made it possible for gay couples and single men to achieve fatherhood by having embryo created with their s***m and donor oocytes.
HISTORICAL ASPECT OF SURROGACY
Surrogacy practice has been referred to since ancient times. Babylonian law and customs allowed this practice to avoid otherwise inevitable divorce. The earliest known description of surrogacy is claimed to be the servant Hagar begetting a child for the childless Sarah through her husband Abraham, described in the biblical Book of Genesis.
In Bible, Rachel asked her maid Bilhah to conceive a child with her husband Jacob. The concept of surrogacy is also found in Hindu mythology, as despite taking birth from the womb of Rohini, Balram is regarded as the son of mother Devaki and elder brother of Lord Krishna. From middle age to modern times, reproductive services have been provided for fee.
LANDMARK YEARS IN SURROGACY
1980 – Michigan Lawyer Noel Keane wrote the first surrogacy contract.
1985 – A woman carried the first successful gestational surrogate pregnancy in the USA.
1986 – Melissa Stern, otherwise known as “Baby M,” was born in the U.S. The surrogate and biological mother, Mary Beth Whitehead, refused to cede custody of Melissa to the couple with whom she made the surrogacy agreement.
1990 – In California, gestational carrier Anna Johnson refused to give up the baby to intended parents Mark and Crispina Calvert. The couple sued her for custody (Calvert v. Johnson), and the court upheld their parental rights. In doing so, it legally defined the true mother as the woman who, according to the surrogacy agreement, intends to create and raise a child.
INDICATION FOR SURROGACY
Absolute indication for surrogacy is the absence of uterus. Causes for it can be Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser syndrome or history of obstetrics hysterectomy or hysterectomy for gynecological indications such as cervical cancer or endometrial cancer. Apart from this, significant structural abnormalities such as small unicornuate uterus, T-shaped uterus, or multiple fibroids with failed fertility treatment attempts also constitute indications. Women with severe medical conditions (heart or renal diseases) which are contraindication of pregnancy are the other indications for surrogacy. Surrogacy can also be considered as a last resort for the treatment of patient with repeated miscarriage and recurrent implantation failure where all possible tools for self-pregnancy have been exhausted. Biological impossibility to conceive or bear a child which applied to same-sex couples or single men also may necessitate surrogacy.
SELECTION OF SURROGATE
Eligibility Criteria and Qualifications
i) Age
Most surrogacy programs, including Family Inceptions, will require you to be between 24 and 39 years old. This is because this is the optimal age range for successful pregnancies, with lower complication rates and best outcomes for both you and the baby.
On the other hand, women over 40 have increased risks of preterm and very preterm birth, emergency cesarean section, and stillbirth. Ultimately, it is important for both you as a surrogate, the baby, and the intended parents to stay within these guidelines, as it helps promote healthier pregnancies.
ii) Pregnancy History
Having carried a baby successfully before is an indicator that your body is capable of supporting a healthy pregnancy. This is encouraging for you and for the intended parents.
Past pregnancy experiences, whether positive or challenging, are carefully considered to ensure the safety and well-being of both the surrogate and the baby. Here are a few aspects that your guiding surrogacy agency may take into account:
• Proven prior pregnancy: Having carried a pregnancy successfully in the past shows that your body is capable of carrying a baby to term. This can indicate a lower risk of complications during a future pregnancy or surrogacy.
• Uncomplicated deliveries: Women with a history of healthy, complication-free deliveries are often preferred because they are likely to have a low-risk labor and postpartum recovery.
• Limited delivery history: Having had many deliveries (more than 4) can increase the risk of complications like uterine exhaustion or placental issues, which may impact safety.
iii) Physical Health Requirements
Taking care of your physical health is essential when considering surrogacy, both for your own well-being and to ensure the healthiest possible pregnancy. These requirements are in place to create a safe, healthy environment for you as a surrogate and the baby.
• Body Mass Index (BMI): Maintaining a healthy BMI, generally between 19 and 29, helps minimize risks such as gestational diabetes, hypertension, miscarriage, preeclampsia, and preterm birth, which are complications often associated with obesity.
• Medical History: Certain medical conditions, such as uncontrolled hypertension, diabetes, or autoimmune disorders, can increase the risk of pregnancy complications. Some hereditary conditions may also be passed to the baby, affecting long-term health.
• Medication and Substance Use: Certain medications, like some antibiotics or medications for chronic conditions, as well as recreational substances such as alcohol, ni****ne, or drugs, can affect fetal development or compromise your health during pregnancy. Avoiding these is key to promoting a safer environment for the baby’s growth and development.
• STD Screening: Untreated sexually transmitted infections can lead to complications during pregnancy, including preterm birth or transmission to the baby. Often, a current, clear STD screening is required to protect both your health and the baby’s safety.
Other requirements
• Has full civil capacity and can independently bear responsibility in accordance with the law;
• Participates in the surrogacy project voluntarily, without any coercion or pressure;
• Has no criminal record and has not been subject to criminal liability or significant administrative violations;
• Has not been subject to significant fines and can freely enter and leave her country if need;
A detailed background check on each surrogate parent, including but not limited to the following is conducted : a comprehensive review of the surrogate parent’s personal history, marital status, medical records and mental health status; communication with the surrogate parent’s physician, psychologist and family members to confirm the surrogate parent’s suitability as a surrogate parent.
COUNSELING
In-depth counseling of all the parties engaged in surrogacy arrangements is of paramount importance. They must be confident and comfortable with their decisions and have trust in each other. Many issues must be discussed with both the genetic couple and the proposed surrogate:
For the genetic couple:
• All alternative treatment options
• The need for in-depth counseling
• The practical difficulty and cost of treatment
• The psychological risks of surrogacy
• Potential psychological risk to the child
• The chances of having multiple pregnancies if >1 embryo is transferred
• The possibility that a child being born with any abnormality
• The importance of obtaining legal advice and legal complexity associated with surrogacy
• Counseling for option of adoption or life without a child.
For surrogate:
• The full implications of undergoing treatment by IVF and surrogacy
• The possibility of multiple pregnancies
• Social implication associated with surrogacy practice
• The medical risks associated with pregnancy
• Psychological risks associated with surrogacy
• The possibility of sense of bereavement while giving baby to the genetic parents.
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
Once a surrogate and intended parent decide to move forward together, they need to make it official by signing a legal contract. Each party can have their own attorney to ensure that their legal interests are represented and protected. Once everyone agrees to the terms of the contract and each lawyer has had a chance to review and approve it, contracts are signed, and medical process can begin.
Documents required from the surrogate
Identity proof, school leaving certificate, birth certificate for age verification, marriage certificate, if divorced then divorce certificate, and if widow then death certificate of the spouse is required.
Documents required from the couple/single parent
Identity and address proof of both couples and marriage certificate. In case of single parent, only identity and address proof is required.
SYNCHRONIZATION OF CYCLE
The surrogate embryo transfer could be fresh or frozen transfer and subject to availability of the gestational carrier. With advent of excellent vitrification techniques, surrogacy cycles have become less difficult for assisted reproductive technology (ART) clinic with good embryology laboratory and freezing facility.
For a fresh surrogate transfer, the surrogate and the intended mother cycle may be synchronized with oral contraceptive pills or progesterone pills or surrogate may be put on agonist injection for flexibility of transfer dates.
The surrogate is started on estrogen tablets from the 3rd day of her cycle for around 10 days. On reaching of minimum 8 mm, she is then put on progesterone supplementation for 3 days/5 days before a planned cleavage stage/blastocyst transfer, respectively.
The major parameters of interest before embryos transfer are endometrial thickness which should be between 7mm- 14mm, progesterone hormone should be below 1ng/ml when starting estrogen tablets. Others which are expected to be normal are prolactin, estradiol, thyroid stimulating hormone as well as all serology tests should be negative. The most preferred blood type is Rhesus positive blood.
OBSTETRIC CARE OF SURROGATE
Once a pregnancy is confirmed in the gestational carrier depending on the facility of the ART clinic, she either stays in the surrogate house or at her home. The concept of surrogate house has recently caught a lot of attention for various reasons. Surrogate house is a place where surrogate stays for her entire antenatal period till the date of delivery and all her medical and personal requirements are taken care of. The obstetrics care of surrogate is extensive due to the preciousness of the pregnancy. She stays under the supervision of 24-h nursing staff along with dietician, physiotherapist, counselors, and gynecologist for her medical care. It is due to this care and available facilities that intended couples have taken up more liking towards the concept of surrogate house. Although staying at surrogate house is preferred practice these days, considering the other side of coin, it could be emotionally taxing for surrogate and her entire family as she has to live away from her own child/children and family; however, during their stay at surrogate house, surrogate can go home for few weeks during pregnancy and her family members can also visit her at surrogate house. Staying at surrogate house should be optional and not compulsion for surrogate mother and she should be given a choice.
Surrogates undergo obstetrics assessment every 20 days till the date of delivery, obstetrics scans at 6–8 weeks, anomaly scan at 11–13 weeks, anomaly scan and 3D-4D at 20–22 weeks, and growth scan at 28 weeks and 34–36 weeks. Any additional scan is subject to the obstetric need.
The intended couple is sent regular update regarding the surrogate's pregnancy in the form of her weight gain, vitals, fetal growth, and antenatal investigation reports and scans. Postdelivery, the surrogate is kept under observation for a minimum of 15 days before discharge.
RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH SURROGACY
The major risk associated with surrogacy is that of obstetrics complication and multiple order pregnancy being the most common, only 15%–20% of clinics follow single embryo transfer norms. Pregnancy, birth, and the postpartum period includes complications such as preeclampsia and eclampsia, urinary tract infections, stress incontinence, and gestational diabetes and rare complications such as amniotic fluid embolism and possibility of postpartum hemorrhage, but these risks are associated with pregnancy in general and not specific to surrogacy.
Apart from physical risk, surrogacy may be reason for emotional trauma as many surrogate mothers face emotional problems after having to relinquish the child. Moreover some women experience emotional problems in handing over the baby, these feelings appeared to lessen during the weeks following the birth.
ETHICAL CONCERNS WITH SURROGACY PROCEDURE
Surrogacy has raised many ethical debates in the past. The prime ethical concerns raised in the whole system of surrogacy is regarding the concern about exploitation, commodification, and/or coercion when women are paid to be pregnant and deliver babies, especially in cases where there are large wealth and power differentials between intended parents and surrogates. However, the counter to it is a woman's right to enter in to a contract and to make decision regarding her own body. Womb commodification is a term sometimes used due to the economic agents engaged in the practice. The commodification arrangement raises the argument whether women are being given control over their body or being exploited for their individual body parts.
The other major argument against womb commodification is that it allows the rich to take advantage of the willingness of poor women to perform any job as long as they are able to earn a wage.
Another ethical issue raised is in relation to the motherhood status of women involved. What could be the relationship between genetic mother, gestational mother, and social mother? Is it possible to socially or legally accept multiple motherhood? Should a child born via surrogacy have the right to know the identity of any/all of the people involved in that child's conception and delivery?
RELIGIOUS ASPECTS AND ISSUES WITH SURROGACY
Religious considerations
With technological advancement and globalization, the idea of surrogacy is now more finessed, and there is an increased public awareness in part due to the publicity by celebrities who pursued the pathway of surrogacy. While surrogacy finds its place within the political and sociocultural realms, it is eliciting multilevel moral and ethical dilemmas rooted in traditional and historical beliefs.
i) Catholicism
“Paragraph 2376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church states that Techniques that entail the dissociation of husband and wife, by the intrusion of a person other than the couple (donation of s***m or o**m, surrogate uterus), are gravely immoral.’’
Over the years, Catholicism has offered a variety of perspectives surrounding ARTs and surrogacy, as contextualized from teachings in the Bible and interpreted among different Catholic theologists and figureheads. Catholic Church’s views on surrogacy and ARTs emphasize the ethical implications surrounding the transmission of life. Pope Paul VI who served as head of the Catholic Church from 1963 to 1978 teaches that “The transmission of life is a most serious role in which married people collaborate freely and responsibly with God the creator”. The Catholic Church confines the transmission of life to only occur within the marriage of husband and wife, such that artificial reproduction removes procreation from the unity of marriage and prevents the consummation of the marital bond. In 1992, Catechism of Catholic Church stated that “techniques that entail the dissociation of husband and wife, by the intrusion of a person other than the couple (donation of s***m or o**m, surrogate uterus), are gravely immoral” and “[establish] the domination of technology over the origin and destiny of the human person”. Accordingly, Catholicism morally opposes both ARTs and surrogacy in upholding the unity of marriage as responsible for procreation without conflicting views of maternal identity.
ii) Islam
Sharia law, the heart of Islamic religion, is considered the primary source toward which Muslims look for guidance. Although the Sharia law does not mention artificial reproduction, Islam supports treatment of infertility and pathway toward successful delivery of babies. The Shi’a guidelines permit surrogacy and third party donations. However, the current Sunni guidelines do not permit use of third party egg, s***matozoon, embryo, or uterus. IVF-embryo transfer is acceptable but the embryo must be a result of the husband and wife’s gametes. Using the husband’s s***matozoa is not permitted if the marriage ends through a divorce or the death of a husband. Donation of oocytes and embryos is not permitted.
iii) Judaism
Judaism allows for artificial insemination with husband’s s***m. It does not permit artificial insemination with donor s***m as it raises the question of adultery and the legitimacy of the offspring. Some communities such as the halakhic Jewish permit Non-Jewish donor s***matozoa since the Jewish status is based in the maternal lineage. Jewish majority groups are supportive of IVF and embryo transfer; however, rabbinical authorities continue to debate on which factor to weigh more for establishing Jewish status: the egg donors or surrogates. According to the Maimonides, the intended mother is the mother, while some rabbinical authorities define motherhood as fixed on the removal of the child from the womb. There is no complete consensus on surrogacy, but Israel legalized gestational surrogacy, and the process is regulated by the government. Jewish individuals living outside of Israel are also subject to Jewish tradition.
IV. Hinduism
Hinduism is liberal when concerning artificial reproductive technologies. The acceptance could be rooted in sociocultural pressures related to infertility. Hindu literature, specifically the story of Mahabharata, depicts individuals resorting to surrogacy and extra-uterine manipulation in attempts to circumvent infertility and to propagate their lineage. In India, where over 966.3 million Hindu’s reside, several popular celebrity couples have been transparent about the role gestational surrogacy played in welcoming their offspring. The openness of Hindu society to surrogacy resulted in rapid growth of villages and institutions eager to supply the increasing demand for surrogates across the world. Before banning entirely commercial surrogacy for foreigners in 2015 and for the domestic market in late 2021, the Indian surrogacy industry was estimated to be worth $375 million. To be noted however, India consists of a population practicing more than 6 different religions including Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. The motivation behind this law is likely rooted in protecting rights of the vulnerable Indian surrogates as opposed to religion.
V) Buddhism
There are about 507 million individuals around the world who practice Buddhism. Generally, Buddhism, due to variation in practicing style based on geographic and sociocultural factors, has no consensus in regard to surrogacy, but tends to be liberal. Buddhism permits individuals, not just married ones, to utilize IVF and allows for s***m donation. The tradition emphasizes the right of such offspring, born through donated genetic material, to meet their genetic parents.
The above reflects various lines of thought and directives within each of the world’s major religions. Practices widely vary depending on the culture and political climate in each location. Given multicultural nature of modern societies, particularly in the US, familiarity with the principles of main religions potentially governing patient decision-making in regard to various ways for family building is important.
ECONOMICAL ASPECTS OF SURROGACY AND REPRODUCTIVE TOURISM
Complex social, moral, ethical, and especially legal concerns posed by surrogacy in couple's native country drive them to avail these fertility services outside their nation. Surrogacy apart from IVF and donor programs has recently been one of the main sought after procedures in fertility tourism.
Israel, Mexico, Barbados, etc., have been the destination for cross-border IVF treatments due to their liberal policies. European couples also prefer the USA for similar reasons. India and other Asian countries are the main destinations for U.S. women seeking fertility treatments, for 40% of U.S women who seek IVF undergo IVF with egg donation through reproductive tourism.
Commercial surrogacy is allowed in India since 2002. Since then, India had emerged as a new surrogacy hub in the world. Many foreign nationals including Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) and People of Indian Origin (PIOs) were choosing India as destination for surrogacy treatment over other countries due to good medical facilities and infrastructure, relatively lower finances, and potential surrogates with Indian social values. The scale of economics involved in surrogacy is unknown, but a study by the United Nations in July 2012 estimated the business at >$400 million a year, with over 3000 fertility clinics across India.
In the past 15 years, the number of gestational carrier cycles increased by >470% and a large majority of (69.4%) clinics now offer this treatment according to the US registry data.
SOCIAL IMPACT WITH SURROGACY
By becoming commercial surrogates, women are enabling themselves to improve not only their lives but also the lives of their families. It is common for surrogates to have had controlled access to education, which would limit the opportunities for employment in the market. Payment for surrogacy varies by contract estimates range from “that equivalent to” three times what the head of house could make in a month. To earn in 9 months one can provide her and her entire family access to better housing, food, education, and sanitization that would otherwise be difficult.
PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT WITH SURROGACY
Being last resort of treatment for many medical indications for infertility, surrogacy poses a new complexity on psychological aspects and again requires multidisciplinary approach. Surrogacy brings to light a cobweb of possible relationships, which could sometimes be emotionally taxing. The doctor should strongly recommend psychosocial education and counseling by a qualified mental health professional to all intended parents.
The main element in the success of surrogacy lies in exploring and deeply understanding its psychological arm and the key to it is the quality of relationships between the intended parents and gestational carrier. Unlike the donor egg programs where the intended parent do not share a relationship with donor and know only nonidentifying information about her, whereas intended parents working with a gestational surrogate typically share a personal relationship with her that will last throughout the pregnancy and often beyond.
TRANSNATIONAL SURROGACY, CITIZENSHIP, AND INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO
Jus soli (right to soil) and Jus Sanguinis (right to blood) have been the traditional establishment for deciding citizenship. Surrogacy challenges this traditional view of citizenship by redefining what it means to be a mother. Many a time, legal citizenship has been the bone of contention in surrogacy.
The Hague Conference Permanent Bureau identified the question of citizenship of these children as a “pressing problem” in the Permanent Bureau 2014 Study. According to the U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs, for the child to be a U.S. citizen, one or both of the child's genetic parents must be a U.S. citizen. Further, in some countries, the child will not be a citizen of the country in which he/she is born because the surrogate mother is not legally the parent of said child. However, with lot of experience over the years, the picture has become clearer and ambiguities in laws are decreasing. One of the landmark cases of problematic transnational surrogacy is that of baby Manji born in 2008 in India. Manji's birth was the result of a commercial surrogate contract between her Japanese parents and her Indian surrogate. Before Manji's birth, her parents divorced and her commissioning mother refused to claim her. Under Indian law, an infant's passport may only be issued in conjunction with the mother. Since neither her Japanese nor Indian mother would claim Manji, for a brief period, her citizenship was not assigned until her grandmother claimed her. Manji is currently 9 years old happily growing. This was a landmark case as lot of legal deficiencies were realized and successfully rectified making the system and laws relating to citizenship more clear and standard.
In Europe, surrogacy is not officially allowed in Austria, Bulgaria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Malta, Norway, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden. Altruistic, but not commercial, surrogacy is allowed in Belgium, Greece, the Netherlands, and the UK. Some European countries, such as Poland and the Czech Republic, currently have no laws regulating surrogacy. Commercial surrogacy is legal in Georgia, Israel, Ukraine, Russia, India, and California, USA, while in many states of the USA, only altruistic surrogacy is allowed. Altruistic surrogacy is also allowed in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. In most Middle Eastern countries, religious authorities do not allow surrogacy.
Surrogacy was previously illegal in Bulgaria; however, due to high illegal and underground practice, the government decided to sanction it. Instead of using the term surrogate, Bulgaria calls it the “substitute mother.”
Each year, the continuous increase in demand for surrogacy and stringent laws force many families to look for cross-border commercial surrogacy. This raises ethical, legal, and social issues, including surrogacy in unregulated regions, inadequate legal protection and representation of GCs and IPs, lack of communication among the counterparts that can lead to dissatisfaction, sensation of being used/betrayed/mistreated Particularly ethically challenging is the care for LGBTQ + individuals, who not only face more restrictions when it comes to surrogacy but may experience other barriers such as healthcare provider lack of knowledge in care for LGBTQ + individuals.
Take home points
• Despite continuous improvements in international and US laws protecting GCs and IPs, gestational surrogacy remains to be inaccessible for many couples seeking parenthood.
• Fertility tourism, or cross-border reproductive care (CBRC), continues to attract couples from areas where gestational surrogacy is unlawful or complicated to the areas where it may be accessible and relatively more affordable.
• It is crucial to continue improving the country and state-specific legislature to protect all the parties involved in gestational surrogacy.
• It is important to understand the particular challenges that same-sex male couples may experience since the access to gestational surrogacy is more limited for this patient population.
• To provide personalized and respectful patient care, healthcare providers should familiarize themselves with the key principles of major religions that may influence patient decisions regarding different approaches to family building.
LGBTQ+ and surrogacy
The legal landscape for LGBTQ+ surrogacy has evolved significantly as of 2026, moving toward greater inclusivity in several Western and Latin American jurisdictions, while remaining restricted in many parts of Asia and Europe.
Primary Legal Frameworks
Navigating surrogacy requires understanding the distinction between two legal models:
• Gestational Surrogacy: The "gold standard" for the community. The surrogate has no genetic link to the child; embryos are created using a donor egg and one or both partners' s***m via IVF.
• Altruistic vs. Commercial: *
Commercial: The surrogate receives a fee above medical expenses (legal in several U.S. states and Colombia).
Altruistic: Only medical and "reasonable" expenses are covered (common in the UK, Canada, and parts of Australia).
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Top Global Destinations (2026)
The following regions offer the most robust legal protections for LGBTQ+ parents, specifically regarding Pre-Birth Orders (PBOs), which allow both parents to be listed on the birth certificate immediately.
Region Legal Status Notes for LGBTQ+ Families
USA (Select States) Fully Legal California, Colorado, Nevada, and Michigan (newly legalized in 2025) offer the strongest protections regardless of marital status.
Canada Altruistic Only Highly inclusive but forbids "for-profit" agencies. Intended parents must manage their own search or use consultants.
Colombia Legal/De Facto Courts have interpreted the constitution to prohibit discrimination, making it a growing, more affordable hub for gay couples.
United Kingdom Altruistic Only Legal, but the surrogate is initially the legal mother. Parents must apply for a Parental Order after birth to transfer rights.
Mexico Varies by State Jurisdictions like Mexico City and Sinaloa are favorable, often used in "hybrid" programs involving U.S. clinics.
Footnotes
1) Always recommend to your patients for;
• Laser Assisted Hatching(LAH)
• Embryo glueing
• Endometrial scratching
All above improve implantation and pregnancy rates and should be offered as extra services at NO extra Costs. However they are generally omitted in almost all IVF centres unlike in repeated implantation failure (RIF) or when I advise the couples.
2) Not all IVF centers offer above services. Contacts us for information.
3) Where AMH levels are low(diminished/low ovarian reserve), you can recommend platelet rich plasma(PRP) for ovarian rejuvenation before making decision for egg donation program. Likewise for obstructive azoos***mia, recommended testicular s***m aspiration(TESA) before s***m donation program. We always try to give couples an opportunity to have their biological children.
4) Insurances and corporate covering IVF treatment in Kenya ; Department of Defence, Kenya seeds, Safaricom, KRA, GDC(Geothermal devt corp), Kenya pipeline, Kengen, NIS, TSC, KPLC,Safaricom,Bupa global, Aetna, Judiciary,Nairobi bottlers, TSC secretariat, Kenya seeds, First Assurance, KCB. Other local insurance companies require pre-authorization for IVF treatment.
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