Dr. Michael Cørnwall

11/01/2025

. . . before you heal someone, ask him if he's willing to give up the things that made him sick - Hippocrates

10/30/2025

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10/29/2025

The Limits of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Why Brain Complexity Defies Magnetic Intervention

Michael Robert Cornwall, PhD, PsyD
Cornwall Counseling Group – Las Vegas, Nevada

Abstract

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) has been promoted as a non-invasive intervention for treatment-resistant depression. Despite its clinical popularity, the scientific rationale underlying TMS remains limited by the oversimplified assumption that depression can be localized to discrete brain regions. The human brain is a dynamic, distributed network whose emotional processes emerge from complex, individualized interactions across neural, cognitive, and experiential systems. This paper argues that the reductionist premise of TMS neglects the heterogeneous and phenomenological nature of depression, the idiosyncratic architecture of the brain, and the ethical implications of applying external electromagnetic modulation to an organ we still only partially understand.

Introduction

In recent years, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) has gained approval as a treatment for major depressive disorder, particularly in individuals unresponsive to pharmacotherapy. The treatment’s appeal rests on its claim to target specific cortical regions associated with mood regulation through focused magnetic fields (George & Post, 2011). However, this mechanistic approach to a profoundly human condition risks reducing the complexity of emotional suffering to a matter of neural circuitry. Depression, rather than being confined to one neural locus, represents a convergence of biological, psychological, and social processes—each embedded within the individual’s lived experience (Mayberg, 2003).

The Reductionist Assumption of Localized Dysfunction

Central to TMS is the presumption that depressive symptoms originate in hypoactivity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and that stimulating this region can restore normative function. Yet, extensive neuroimaging literature reveals that depression involves distributed network dysfunctions encompassing limbic, cortical, and subcortical systems (Mulders et al., 2015). Connectivity between the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, anterior cingulate, hippocampus, and default mode network dynamically fluctuates across individuals and states of mind (Pessoa, 2017). Consequently, to assume that stimulating one cortical region will produce uniform clinical benefit contradicts the empirical evidence for depression’s neurobiological heterogeneity.

Depression as a Distributed Phenomenon

Depression is not a monolithic disorder but a constellation of symptoms shaped by personal history, cognitive style, and environmental context. Neurobiological studies indicate that emotional regulation involves multiple feedback loops integrating affective, cognitive, and sensory processes (DeRubeis et al., 2008). The unique organization of these circuits in each person reflects genetic predisposition, developmental experience, and learned appraisal systems. Attempting to alter mood through external magnetic pulses neglects the adaptive and plastic nature of these interdependent networks. As such, TMS offers an illusion of mechanistic precision unsupported by the brain’s intrinsic variability and interconnectivity.

The Ethical and Clinical Uncertainty of Magnetic Modulation

Although TMS is often described as non-invasive, the ethical implications of altering neuronal activity without fully understanding long-term consequences remain considerable. The brain’s self-organizing complexity means that modulation of one region inevitably influences others in unpredictable ways (Fitzgerald & Daskalakis, 2012). Longitudinal studies assessing cognitive, affective, and neurophysiological changes beyond the acute treatment phase are limited. Furthermore, TMS’s commercial expansion raises concerns about accessibility, informed consent, and therapeutic marketing that may exaggerate efficacy while minimizing uncertainty. The promise of a “neural reset” risks appealing to patient desperation rather than evidence-based understanding.

Individual Experience and Neurobiological Diversity

Human emotion cannot be reduced to cortical activation maps. The subjective experience of depression—its meaning, context, and psychological narrative—is inseparable from its neurobiological expression. Each individual’s brain represents a unique synthesis of experience, perception, and adaptation. Therefore, therapeutic interventions must integrate subjective and relational dimensions rather than rely solely on mechanical stimulation. Psychotherapeutic and cognitive-behavioral approaches recognize this individuality by emphasizing meaning-making, insight, and personal agency (Beck, 2011). In contrast, TMS operates under a biomedical paradigm that privileges physiology while neglecting phenomenology.

Conclusion

The complexity of the human brain and the distributed nature of depression challenge the conceptual foundations of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. The assumption that targeted magnetic pulses can recalibrate mood circuits disregards the emergent and individualized character of emotional life. Until neuroscience develops the capacity to map and interpret the full range of interconnected neural dynamics underlying affective experience, TMS should remain a cautiously experimental modality rather than a standardized clinical solution. Depression demands understanding, not magnetization. Its healing arises through human insight, relational depth, and self-awareness—dimensions that no magnetic field can meaningfully reproduce.

References

Beck, A. T. (2011). Cognitive therapy of depression. Guilford Press.

DeRubeis, R. J., Siegle, G. J., & Hollon, S. D. (2008). Cognitive therapy versus medication for depression: Treatment outcomes and neural mechanisms. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(10), 788–796. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2345

Fitzgerald, P. B., & Daskalakis, Z. J. (2012). The evolving use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73(8), 1097–1103. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.10r06556

George, M. S., & Post, R. M. (2011). Daily left prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for acute treatment of medication-resistant depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(4), 356–364. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10060864

Mayberg, H. S. (2003). Modulating dysfunctional limbic–cortical circuits in depression: Towards development of brain-based algorithms for diagnosis and optimized treatment. British Medical Bulletin, 65(1), 193–207. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/65.1.193

Mulders, P. C., van Eijndhoven, P. F., Schene, A. H., Beckmann, C. F., & Tendolkar, I. (2015). Resting-state functional connectivity in major depressive disorder: A review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 56, 330–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.07.014

Pessoa, L. (2017). Understanding brain networks and brain organization. Physics of Life Reviews, 11(3), 400–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plrev.2014.12.009

10/19/2025

The Influence of Sleep Timing on Aggression and Emotional Regulation

Abstract

Michael Cornwall, PsyD, PhD
Cornwall Counseling, Las Vegas, Nevada

This paper explores the relationship between sleep timing—specifically, evening chronotype tendencies—and aggressive or irritable behaviors in humans. Research indicates that individuals who habitually stay up late and sleep late into the day may exhibit higher levels of aggression, impulsivity, and emotional reactivity compared to those with earlier sleep patterns. The phenomenon appears to be mediated by circadian misalignment, impaired sleep quality, and neurobiological processes involving dopamine and serotonin regulation. While causation cannot be established, evidence supports a significant association between delayed sleep schedules and reduced emotional control.

Introduction

Sleep and aggression have long been recognized as interconnected aspects of human functioning. Chronotype, or an individual’s preferred timing of sleep and wakefulness, influences both cognitive and emotional regulation (Hood & Amir, 2020). People classified as “evening types”—those who stay awake late into the night and sleep later in the day—often report higher irritability, reduced impulse control, and increased aggression compared to “morning types,” who wake and retire earlier (Wang et al., 2023).

Literature Review

Wang et al. (2023) examined adolescents and found that those with evening chronotypes demonstrated significantly higher levels of both verbal and physical aggression than morning chronotypes, even after controlling for gender, age, and personality factors. Similar results have been observed in adult and clinical populations, where later bedtimes and reduced total sleep duration correlate with greater hostility and impulsivity (Kamphuis et al., 2012; Ksinan & Spada, 2020).

Discussion

The accumulated evidence supports a consistent association between evening chronotype and elevated aggression, though the relationship appears to be indirect. Sleep quality, circadian misalignment, and neurobiological regulation function as mediating factors. Chronic misalignment may act as a subtle but persistent stressor, leading to reduced emotional control and increased irritability.

Conclusion

Staying up late and sleeping late into the day does not inherently cause aggression, but it may contribute to physiological and psychological conditions that make emotional regulation more difficult. Circadian misalignment, poor sleep quality, and neurochemical imbalance collectively appear to lower emotional thresholds, resulting in more reactive interpersonal interactions. Addressing these sleep-related vulnerabilities through behavioral and therapeutic interventions offers a promising avenue for improving emotional resilience and reducing aggression in both clinical and community settings.

References

Hood, S., & Amir, S. (2020). Are owls and larks different when it comes to aggression? Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 14, 39. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00039

Kamphuis, J., Meerlo, P., Koolhaas, J. M., & Lancel, M. (2012). Poor sleep as a potential causal factor in aggression and violence. Sleep Medicine, 13(4), 327–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2011.12.006

Ksinan, A. J., & Spada, M. M. (2020). Sleep and aggression: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 51, 101382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2020.101382

Tassi, P., & Muzet, A. (2000). Sleep inertia. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 4(4), 341–353. https://doi.org/10.1053/smrv.2000.0098

Taylor, D. J., Lichstein, K. L., Durrence, H. H., Reidel, B. W., & Bush, A. J. (2011). Epidemiology of insomnia, depression, and anxiety. Sleep, 28(11), 1457–1464. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/28.11.1457

Wang, Y., Liu, H., Wang, Y.-R., Wei, J., Zhao, R.-R., & Fang, J.-Q. (2023). Relationship between chronotypes and aggression in adolescents. BMC Psychology, 11, 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01045-8

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10/09/2025

THE EVOLUTION OF PURPOSE ACROSS THE LIFESPAN

The Evolution of Purpose Across the Lifespan: A Spiral Model of Meaning Development

Michael Cornwall, PhD, PsyD
Cornwall Counseling Group
Las Vegas, Nevada

Abstract

This paper proposes a lifespan model of human development organized around Purose rather than cognition, morality, or psychosocial conflict. The Purpose Developmental Model (PDM) articulates five distinct stages: (1) Safety and Belonging (birth–12), (2) Identity and Expression (12–20), (3) Intimacy and Contribution (20–40), (4) Authenticity and Legacy (40–65), and (5) Wisdom and Unity (65+). Each stage reflects a primary human task oriented toward finding and embodying purpose appropriate to one’s developmental context. This model integrates insights from Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory, Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy, Carl Jung’s individuation process, and contemporary emotional intelligence (EI) frameworks. The PDM posits that purpose is the fundamental motivational and integrative principle of psychological development — the thread that connects survival, identity, love, work, creativity, and transcendence.

The Foundation of Purpose

Human development has often been understood through the lenses of cognition (Piaget), psychosocial conflict (Erikson), morality (Kohlberg), or self-actualization (Maslow). Each of these models describes how people grow — yet they often stop short of explaining why. Purpose provides that missing 'why.'

Purpose represents the intrinsic drive to make meaning through participation, expression, and connection. It gives direction to human motivation and cohesion to human identity (Damon, Menon, & Bronk, 2003). The Purpose Developmental Model (PDM) reframes traditional developmental theory by asserting that purpose is not an outcome of development but its organizing principle. Each life stage centers on a different purpose theme — a psychosocial focus through which meaning, motivation, and selfhood evolve (Erikson, 1959).

Stage One: The Purpose of Safety and Belonging

The earliest years of life (birth through 12) are defined by dependency and trust. The child’s central purpose is to find security within relationships — to experience that belonging and safety are unconditional. Erikson’s (1959) first two stages, trust vs. mistrust and autonomy vs. shame and doubt, parallel this phase. Yet whereas Erikson frames these in terms of psychosocial conflict, the PDM emphasizes purpose realization: the sense that one’s existence has inherent value within a social system. Maslow (1943) identified belonging as a core need after physiological and safety needs, but the PDM treats belonging as a developmental purpose, not a need — a stage of learning in which the child internalizes that safety and belonging are achievable through connection, not compliance. This realization becomes the bedrock of later selfhood and resilience.

Stage Two: The Purpose of Identity and Expression

As adolescents move toward autonomy, the central purpose shifts to identity and expression. While Erikson’s (1968) identity vs. role confusion captures the search for self-definition, the PDM expands this to include expression — the active, creative projection of identity into the social world. Purpose at this stage is not only to find the self but to test it through experimentation and relational feedback. Jung’s (1961) concept of the persona and shadow — the integration of the public and private self — aligns closely here. Expression becomes the laboratory of authenticity. From an emotional intelligence perspective (Goleman, 1995), this stage reflects the development of self-awareness: learning that authentic expression invites genuine connection.

Stage Three: The Purpose of Intimacy and Contribution

Young adulthood (20 through 40) introduces the task of connected purpose: integrating personal meaning with shared experience. While Erikson’s (1968) intimacy vs. isolation describes the tension of closeness, the PDM highlights contribution as the evolution of intimacy — the idea that purpose expands when shared. Maslow (1968) suggested that self-actualization involves creative productivity and altruism. Similarly, Frankl (1959) emphasized that meaning arises through love and work. Purpose here is inherently relational: people discover that fulfillment comes from offering themselves to something beyond the ego. When this purpose is thwarted, individuals may achieve success but feel hollow — what Jung might call a failure to connect the outer and inner lives.

Stage Four: The Purpose of Authenticity and Legacy

Middle adulthood (40 through 65) brings a profound reorientation from accumulation to meaning. The individual begins to ask, 'What is mine to give? What endures of me?' This is the stage where purpose shifts from doing to being with intention. Erikson’s (1982) generativity vs. stagnation resonates here, yet the PDM reframes it through authenticity and legacy. Generativity can exist without authenticity — one can produce or mentor while remaining disconnected from personal truth. The purpose of this stage is to align inner truth with outward expression — to live one’s values fully and intentionally (Jung, 1933; Frankl, 1969).

Stage Five: The Purpose of Wisdom and Unity

In late adulthood, (65 and through), purpose transcends personal achievement and becomes integrative. The self seeks unity — a sense that all life stages, relationships, and experiences belong to a coherent whole. This mirrors Erikson’s (1982) integrity vs. despair, but the PDM interprets it not as a reckoning but as a synthesis. Frankl (1985) and Jung (1959) both saw this stage as one of reconciliation with mortality. Maslow (1971) later added a sixth stage to his hierarchy — self-transcendence — describing it as the expansion of the self beyond individual identity into unity with humanity or the cosmos. The elder becomes a steward of meaning.

Revisiting and Realigning Purpose

Although the PDM is presented sequentially, it is not strictly linear. Purpose formation follows Erikson’s (1959) idea of epigenesis — each stage builds upon the preceding one but remains dynamically accessible throughout life. Strengths and weaknesses formed at earlier stages are living structures that influence subsequent meaning-making. Psychological development is not strictly chronological but recursive. Jung (1961) described individuation as a lifelong spiral — the conscious self repeatedly encountering earlier unconscious material. Research in adult development (Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Kegan, 1982) supports this view: meaning systems are plastic and can be reorganized through reflection, therapy, or spiritual experience. Revisiting earlier stages of purpose building is not regression but reintegration. Alignment with a more profound purpose occurs not by abandoning the present stage but by integrating unfinished tasks of the past. Frankl (1959) emphasized that meaning can be discovered under any conditions, but only through attitudinal change. Purpose alignment is therefore not bound by age but by existential readiness. Development is best understood as a spiral, where each revolution revisits familiar themes from a higher level of consciousness. Every return deepens wisdom, allowing earlier purposes to be reinterpreted rather than relived.

Conclusion

The Purpose Developmental Model (PDM) reframes human development as the progressive realization of meaning through five evolving purposes: Safety and Belonging, Identity and Expression, Intimacy and Contribution, Authenticity and Legacy, and Wisdom and Unity. Where other theories emphasize conflict or cognition, the PDM emphasizes coherence. It assumes that to live purposefully is to live psychologically whole — that belonging, identity, connection, authenticity, and unity are not separate achievements but one unfolding of meaning. Purpose is not found but cultivated; not fixed but evolving; not given but lived into.

References

Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bar-On, R. (2000). Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i). Handbook of Emotional Intelligence, 363–388.

Damon, W., Menon, J., & Bronk, K. C. (2003). The development of purpose during adolescence. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 119–128.

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. New York: International Universities Press.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: Norton.

Frankl, V. E. (1959). Man’s search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press.

Frankl, V. E. (1969). The will to meaning. New York: Plume.

Frankl, V. E. (1985). The unheard cry for meaning. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam Books.

Jung, C. G. (1933). Modern man in search of a soul. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Jung, C. G. (1959). The archetypes and the collective unconscious. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Jung, C. G. (1961). Memories, dreams, reflections. New York: Vintage.

Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.

Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Viking Press.

McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5(2), 100–122.

10/05/2025

09/30/2025

The Integration of “I,” “We,” “Me,” and “Us” Across Erikson’s Stages

1. The “I” Integration (Birth – ~20 years)

The first five of Erikson’s stages—trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, and identity vs. role confusion—culminate in the adolescent’s task of forming a coherent sense of identity (Erikson, 1968).
• In this period, the child gradually builds autonomy, purpose, competence, and, eventually, a stable “I.”
• Without this foundation, later relational and societal tasks are weakened.

Thus, the “I” is the anchor of the self, integrated through developmental experiences that validate trust, independence, and personal coherence.

2. The “We” Integration (~20 – ~40 years)

This corresponds to Erikson’s intimacy vs. isolation stage.
• The “we” forms when two (or more) secure “I’s” are able to unite without fear of losing themselves (Erikson, 1982).
• Intimacy requires identity strength; those who fail to establish an “I” may struggle with fusion, dependency, or avoidance of intimacy.
• Successful integration here means that individuality expands into shared commitments, partnerships, and deep friendships.

The “we” thus represents the relational expansion of the self.

3. The “Me” Integration (~40 – ~65 years)

This aligns with generativity vs. stagnation.
• Here, the self asks: “What is my role? What is my purpose?” (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992).
• The “me” integrates identity into contribution, often through parenting, mentoring, creative work, or social engagement.
• Stagnation occurs when the “me” fails to connect identity with larger purposes, leading to feelings of emptiness or self-absorption.

The “me” is the reflective stage, where the individual considers their legacy and influence.

4. The “Us” Integration (65 years and onward)

The final stage, integrity vs. despair, is the point at which the “I,” “we,” and “me” are woven into the broader story of humanity.
• Individuals review their lives with an eye toward meaning, interconnectedness, and belonging to a greater whole (Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986).
• The “us” represents integration with community, culture, and the flow of generations.
• Successful resolution brings acceptance and wisdom, whereas despair arises from regret or isolation.

The “us” is the culmination of integration, where personal identity finds peace within the collective human story.

Integration Across the Lifespan

This framework illustrates a progression of widening circles of belonging:

• I = identity, self-definition.
• We = intimacy, relational bonds.
• Me = purpose, productivity, and legacy.
• Us = wisdom, community, and humanity.

Through these stages, Erikson’s theory can be seen as an unfolding process of integrating the self into progressively broader domains of connection and meaning (Erikson, 1968, 1982).

References

• Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. W. W. Norton & Company.
• Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. W. W. Norton & Company.
• Erikson, E. H. (1982). The life cycle completed. W. W. Norton & Company.
• Erikson, E. H., Erikson, J. M., & Kivnick, H. Q. (1986). Vital involvement in old age. W. W. Norton & Company.
• McAdams, D. P., & de St. Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generativity and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 1003–1015. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1003

09/30/2025

Emotional Intelligence, Imagination, and Clinical Applications for Emotional Pain

Emotional intelligence does not regard emotional pain as something that exists independently, waiting to surface. Instead, it teaches that pain is activated by thought in the present moment. Neuroscience supports this claim, showing that memory is not a static recording but a reconstruction. Each time we recall a painful event, the brain actively reassembles it, drawing on the same networks involved in perception and emotional appraisal (Schacter & Addis, 2007). In this way, the pain of the past is not re-experienced as it was but is re-created through imagination, often colored by current beliefs, concerns, and context (McGaugh, 2013).

From a clinical standpoint, this has significant implications. Many individuals come to therapy believing they are trapped by the past. They may say, “I can’t stop feeling this way because of what happened to me.” Cognitive-behavioral frameworks, such as the A-B-C model of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (Ellis, 1994), challenge this assumption by showing that beliefs mediate between events and consequences. The brain corroborates this: studies on cognitive reappraisal demonstrate that when clients reinterpret memories differently, the amygdala’s activity decreases while prefrontal regions responsible for regulation increase (Ochsner & Gross, 2005). This means clients are not powerless—they can alter their relationship to memory by changing their present appraisal.

Emotional intelligence builds on this principle by adding self-awareness and regulation skills. Clients who learn to notice when imagination is fueling pain can interrupt the cycle of rumination. Rumination is, in effect, the repeated activation of neural circuits associated with memory and emotion, strengthening the association between thought and distress. By applying EI skills such as self-observation, clients can step back from this process, asking, “What am I thinking right now that makes this painful?” This reframes pain as an event occurring in the present mind, not as something permanently embedded in the self (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008).

Clinicians can use several strategies to apply this insight:

1. Mindfulness-based noticing. Mindfulness practices help clients see thoughts as transient mental events rather than absolute truths. Neuroscience shows that mindfulness reduces default mode network activity, which is associated with self-referential rumination (Spreng & Grady, 2010).
2. Cognitive disputation. Borrowing from Ellis (1994), therapists can help clients challenge irrational beliefs tied to painful memories. For example, the thought “Because this happened, I will always be broken” can be reframed as “This happened, but my pain is sustained by what I believe about it now.”
3. Memory reconsolidation techniques. Emerging clinical methods highlight that memories can be “updated” when reactivated in a therapeutic context. By pairing the recollection of a painful event with new interpretations, clients may experience a reduction in its emotional charge (Phelps, 2004).
4. Strengthening present-moment orientation. Encouraging clients to distinguish between “then” and “now” helps reduce the sense of timelessness that often accompanies trauma and grief. This can be reinforced by experiential exercises where clients ground themselves in current sensory input, contrasting it with imagined memory.

By integrating emotional intelligence with these therapeutic strategies, clients are empowered to recognize that emotional pain is not an inevitable condition but a product of thought, memory, and imagination at work in the present. This recognition restores agency: pain is no longer a force imposed upon them but a process they can observe, question, and reshape.

Ultimately, the union of cognitive-behavioral theory, neuroscience, and emotional intelligence underscores a hopeful message: emotional pain is real, but it is also pliable. It can be softened when clients learn to see how imagination and appraisal sustain it, and when they apply self-awareness to guide their engagement with thought. In this way, therapy does not erase the past but reframes its presence, allowing individuals to live more freely in the present moment.

References

• Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
• Ellis, A. (1994). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy: Revised and updated edition. Citadel Press.
• Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.
• Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2008). Emotional intelligence: New ability or eclectic traits? American Psychologist, 63(6), 503–517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.6.503
• McGaugh, J. L. (2013). Making lasting memories: Remembering the significant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(Supplement_2), 10402–10407. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1301209110
• Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2005). The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(5), 242–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010
• Phelps, E. A. (2004). Human emotion and memory: Interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14(2), 198–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.015
• Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2007). Constructive memory: The ghosts of past and future. Nature, 445(7123), 27. https://doi.org/10.1038/445027a
• Spreng, R. N., & Grady, C. L. (2010). Patterns of brain activity supporting autobiographical memory, prospection, and theory of mind, and their relationship to the default mode network. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(6), 1112–1123. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21282