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Medical Laboratory Sciences By Samuel, Lusaka (2026)

25/12/2025

Shout out to my newest followers! Excited to have you onboard! Singoyi James, David Chanda, Josephy K Tembo, Kombe Mukobe, Alfred Ezekiel Mwale, Faith Michelle Ilunga, Sayi Pride, Ntanda T Chikweti, Andrew Texus Chisanga, Irvine Irvinator Teelela, Lola Rose Mubanga, Xavier Stylës, Gracious Mweemba, Mulenga Hortensia, Karen Chanda, Esther Sibalombwana, Almustapha Ibrahim, Idah Chanda Mukuka, Miranda Chiimbwe, Newton Cobrex, Chalula Maybin, Abigail Mildred Machisa, Martin Prosperous Chulu, Enika Manda, Freeman Kutoha Elitongo, Kebana M Blessings, Bernadette Hamainza Lamya, Christone Kaile, Rechael Kandela, Elizabeth Kapota, Nancy Ng'andu, Lawrence Kali, Angela Sakala, Nickson Bandah, Valiant Kasanda, Patricia Mbewe, Abraham Muloyi, James Mwansa, Bint Aziz, Ethel Nyirenda, Dickson Njobvu, Blessings Lukasi, Carmela Mitulu, Jane Boombe, Mofya Kafula, Maureen Anita Kaluba, Epeaneto Kenny, Zamekile Brandon Dube, Phiri Chimundah, Mwewa Moses

20/10/2025

LABORATORY SPECIMEN SUBMISSION

Submitting the correct amount or volume of a specimen for laboratory testing is crucial for ensuring accurate and reliable results. Too little might mean the lab can't perform all necessary tests, while too much can sometimes be unnecessary or make handling difficult.

GENERAL GUIDE ON APPROPRIATE SPECIMEN AMOUNTS, DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN ROUTINE AND MORE COMPLEX TESTS.

Always refer to specific instructions from your healthcare provider or the laboratory, as requirements can vary!

1. STOOL (F***S) SPECIMENS

Stool samples are vital for diagnosing digestive issues, infections, and other conditions.

FOR ROUTINE EXAMINATION (e.g., Occult Blood, Ova & Parasites, Culture):

✓ AMOUNT: Typically, a walnut-sized portion (about 2-5 grams) is sufficient. If using a collection kit, there will often be a designated fill line or scoop.

✓ METHOD: Collect from different parts of the stool (top, middle, and end) to get a representative sample. Avoid mixing with urine or toilet water.

✓WHY: This amount provides enough material for microscopic examination, chemical tests, and culture without being excessive.

FOR COMPLEX/SPECIALIZED TESTS (e.g., Quantitative F***l Fat, Elastase):

✓ AMOUNT: These tests often require larger, sometimes timed, collections. For example, a 24- or 72-hour f***l fat test requires all stool passed during that period.

✓ METHOD: You'll be provided with special containers and detailed instructions for collecting every bowel movement over the specified time.

✓WHY: These tests measure total output or specific components over time, requiring a comprehensive collection to be accurate.

2. URINE SPECIMENS

Urine samples are incredibly versatile for detecting kidney disease, UTIs, metabolic disorders, and more.

FOR ROUTINE URINALYSIS (UA) & Culture:

✓ VOLUME: 30-60 mL (about 2-4 tablespoons) is generally ideal. Some labs can work with less (e.g., 10-20 mL) if needed.

✓ METHOD: A "mid-stream clean catch" is usually required to avoid contamination. Collect the urine into a sterile container.

✓ WHY: This volume allows for chemical strip testing, microscopic examination of sediment, and microbial culture if indicated.

FOR COMPLEX/SPECIALIZED TESTS:

a) 24-HOUR URINE COLLECTION (e.g., Creatinine Clearance, Protein, Cortisol):

✓ VOLUME: This requires collecting all urine passed over a full 24-hour period. You will be given a large container (typically 2-4 liters capacity), sometimes containing a preservative.

✓ METHOD: You start by emptying your bladder and discarding that first urine. Then, for the next 24 hours, you collect every drop of urine passed into the provided container. At the exact 24-hour mark, you empty your bladder one last time into the container.

✓ WHY: These tests measure how much of a substance your kidneys process or excrete over an entire day, requiring a complete collection for accurate calculations and diagnoses.

b) FIRST MORNING URINE (e.g., for specific protein markers, pregnancy tests):

✓ VOLUME: Usually 30-60 mL.

✓METHOD: Collect the very first urine you pass upon waking.

✓ WHY: This urine is typically more concentrated, making it ideal for detecting substances that might be diluted later in the day.

c) POST-PRANDIAL URINE (e.g., Glucose):

✓ VOLUME: Typically 30-60 mL.

✓ METHOD: Collected a specific time after a meal (e.g., 2 hours).

✓ WHY: Used to assess how the body handles substances like glucose after food intake.

KEY TAKEAWAYS FOR ALL SPECIMENS

a) Read Instructions Carefully: Always prioritize the specific instructions given by your doctor or the lab.
b) Use Provided Containers: Labs provide sterile, appropriate containers for a reason.
c) Label Clearly: Ensure your name, date, and time of collection are clearly written on the container.
d) Store Correctly: Follow guidance on refrigeration or special handling to maintain specimen integrity.
e) Ask Questions: If anything is unclear, don't hesitate to ask your healthcare provider or the laboratory staff for clarification.

By taking a moment to understand and follow collection guidelines, you play a vital role in ensuring the accuracy of your diagnostic tests and supporting effective healthcare!

Douglas J Moyo Dickson Sandala Health Workers Connect Health Professions Council of Zambia - HPCZ Ministry of Health Zambia Dr. Mujajati Aaron

11/09/2025

ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE: A SILENT BUT GROWING THREAT

A client working at a pharmacy had been experiencing recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) for over two years. Without seeking medical attention, she repeatedly self-medicated with antibiotics. When she finally came to the hospital, a urine culture and sensitivity test showed that the bacteria causing her infection was resistant to nearly all common antibiotics (Ampicillin, Cefotaxime, Gentamicin, Amoxicillin, Penicillin, etc.)
This situation highlights a serious global health issue called Antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

DANGERS OF SELF-MEDICATION

1) WRONG CHOICE OF DRUG
Not all UTIs need antibiotics, and not every antibiotic works against every bacterium.

2) INCOMPLETE TREATMENT
Taking medicines irregularly or stopping early allows bacteria to survive and become resistant.

3) MASKING UNDERLYING ISSUES
Recurrent infections may point to other medical conditions that only a health professional can properly evaluate.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

a) Infections become harder and more expensive to treat.
b) Patients may need stronger, less accessible, or more toxic drugs.
c) Resistant infections can spread to others, making this not just a personal problem but a public health threat.

PREVENTION

a) Seek professional care early and don’t wait for infections to worsen.
b) Always do recommended tests e.g. urine culture & sensitivity, to guide the right treatment.
c) Complete the prescribed course even if you feel better.
d) Never share or buy antibiotics without a prescription.

NOTE: Antibiotics are life-saving medicines, but when misused, they lose their power.

28/08/2025

A positive sickling slide test refers to when a patient’s red blood cells change shape from normal biconcave discs to sickle (crescent-like) shapes after exposure to a reducing agent (like sodium metabisulfite).

INTERPRETATION

✓Indicates the presence of Hemoglobin S (HbS) in the red blood cells.

✓It does not differentiate between sickle cell trait (AS) and sickle cell disease (SS) — further confirmatory tests like hemoglobin electrophoresis or HPLC are needed.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

The patient has sickle hemoglobin.

✓If symptomatic with anemia and frequent crises, likely sickle cell disease (SS, SC, etc.).

✓If asymptomatic with normal Hb and no history of crises, likely sickle cell trait (AS).

NOTE
The test can give false negatives if the sample is old or oxygenated too much, so fresh blood is best.

19/08/2025

1. S***M MOTILITY

Refers to how well and in what pattern s***matozoa move. In semen analysis, s***m motility is a key parameter because it determines the ability of s***m to travel through the female reproductive tract to reach and fertilize the egg.

a) DIFFERENT TYPES OF S***M MOTILITY:

✓PROGRESSIVE MOTILITY
s***m move actively forward in a straight line or in a large circle (useful for fertilization).

✓NON-PROGRESSIVE MOTILITY
s***m move but without forward progression (just twitching or moving in small circles).

✓IMMOTILE
s***m show no movement at all.

According to the WHO 2021 reference values for semen analysis, s***m motility is classified like this:

✓NORMAL MOTILITY (progressive + non-progressive combined):

≥ 40% of total s***m should be motile

✓PROGRESSIVE MOTILITY (PR):
≥ 32% of s***m should show progressive movement (straight/large circle forward motion)

NOTE
If values are below these cut-offs, it is described as asthenozoos***mia (reduced s***m motility).

2. MORPHOLOGY (shape of s***m)

Refers to the size and structure of s***m head, midpiece, and tail.Abnormal forms can’t swim properly or fertilize the egg.

WHO 2021 reference value:

a) ≥ 4% normal forms (strict Kruger criteria) is considered within the normal range.

b) If < 4%, it is called teratozoos***mia (abnormal s***m morphology).

When reporting, the lab usually gives:

✓ S***m concentration (count)
✓ Motility (progressive, non-progressive, immotile)
✓ Morphology (normal vs abnormal forms)

Then a conclusion is drawn, for example:

a)NORMAL SEMEN PARAMETERS
Fertility potential is likely normal.

b)OLIGOS***MIA
Low s***m count.

c)ASTHENOZOOS***MIA
Low motility.

d)TERATOZOOS***MIA Abnormal morphology.

e)OLIGOASTHENOTERATOZOOS***MIA (OAT syndrome) When count, motility, and morphology are all below reference values.

3. CONCLUSION

Semen analysis mainly evaluates three key parameters: s***m concentration (count), s***m motility (movement), and s***m morphology (shape). The final interpretation depends on whether these are within or below WHO reference values.

27/07/2025

Shout out to my newest followers! Excited to have you onboard! Juventus Dicksons, Enock Ngoma, Ruth Mwanakatwe, So Prav Kasabuni, Ирина Гутник

23/07/2025

SPECIMEN: Semen
COLOUR: Slightly Yellow

LEUCOCYTOSPEMIA

Leukocytos***mia is a condition where there are too many white blood cells (WBCs) in a man's semen — usually more than 1 million WBCs per milliliter.

While WBCs help fight infections but having too many in semen can be a sign of Infection or inflammation.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

High WBCs can damage s***m DNA, reduce motility, and affect fertility.

NOTE: Diagnosis is confirmed using special stains to differentiate WBCs from immature s***m cells.

21/07/2025

Negative Sickling Test .

14/07/2025

SPECIMEN: Urine

PROCEDURE: Gram Staining

Yeast cells in urine may indicate a fungal urinary tract infection, commonly seen in individuals with diabetes, weakened immune systems, or prolonged antibiotic use.

12/07/2025

I had the privilege of attending the URIT Medical Equipment Demonstration Congress on June 27, 2025, hosted by Asian Medicos Enterprise Limited.

From insightful key-note sessions on transforming diagnostics in Africa to hands-on experience with hematology, biochemistry, and point-of-care innovations — it was an eye-opening evening filled with learning and innovation.

I’m especially grateful for the opportunity to network with fellow professionals, explore cutting-edge lab technologies, and hear real success stories from hospitals across Africa.

A big thank you to URIT and the organizing team for a well-planned and impactful event. I walked away with new knowledge, connections, and a renewed sense of purpose in medical diagnostics.

🧬🔬 Proud to be part of this journey toward better healthcare.

17/06/2025

CASE: Yeast Cells in an 8 months old infant.

While small amounts of yeast may exist in the gut, it's not normal to see visible yeast cells in stool under the microscope, especially in significant numbers. Their presence often signals that something is wrong, like antibiotic-induced imbalance, immune suppression, or possible intestinal candidiasis.
Yeast cells can be found in stool for several reasons:

1. NORMAL GUT FLORA:

Small amounts of yeast live naturally in the human gastrointestinal tract. Finding a few yeast cells may simply reflect normal flora — especially in infants or immunocompetent individuals.

2. ANTIBIOTIC USE:

Recent or prolonged antibiotic treatment can disrupt normal bacterial flora, allowing yeast to overgrow and become more prominent in stool samples.

3. IMMATURE OR WEAKENED IMMUNE SYSTEM:

Infants (like an 8-month-old) or immunocompromised individuals may struggle to control yeast levels in the gut, leading to visible overgrowth.

4. DIETARY OR ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION:

Sometimes, ingested yeast (from food or formula) or contamination from the diaper area can appear in stool, especially if the sample collection wasn't clean.

5. INTESTINAL CANDIDIASIS(Yeast Infection in the Gut):

In rare but important cases, large numbers of budding yeast or pseudohyphae in stool — especially when associated with diarrhoea, bloating, or failure to thrive — may indicate a true fungal infection of the gut.

NOTE:

Always correlate microscopy findings with clinical symptoms like persistent diarrhoea, recent antibiotic use, or diaper rash before labelling it clinically significant.

Medical Laboratory Sciences By Samuel

25/12/2025

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